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A  COURSE  IN 
JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


BOOKS  BY 

GRANT  MILNOR 
HYDE 


NEWSPAPER     REPORTING 
AND  CORRESPONDENCE 

NEWSPAPER  EDITING 

HANDBOOK    FOR 
NEWSPAPER   WORKERS 

A  COURSE  IN 
JOURNALISTIC    WRITING 


D.      APPLETOX      AND      COMPANY 
^ew  York  London 


A -COURSE  IN 
JOURNALISTIC    WRITING 


BY 

GRANT  MILNOR  HYDE,  M.A. 

ASSOCIATE    PROFESSOR    OF    JOURNALISM   AND    EDITOR    OF    II>r[\-ERSITT   PRES9 

BUREAU  IN  THE  UNI^-ERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN/  AUTHOR  OF    "NEWSPAPER 

REPORTING   AND    CORRESPONDENCE,"     "NEWSPAPER    EDITING," 

AND  "handbook  FOR  NEWSPAPER  WORKERS" 


D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 
NEW  YORK  LONDON 


COPYRIGHT,    1922,  BY 

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


PRINTED  IN  THE   TNITliP   8T>TE8   OF  AMERICA 


PREFACE 

The  title  of  a  book  is  often  the  hardest  part  to  write. 
The  title  of  this  book  is  admittedly  a  compromise.  When  the 
man-ascript  was  submitted  to  various  high-school  and  col- 
lege teachers  of  the  subject,  each  suggested  a  different  title 
to  express  the  content  and  purpose  of  the  work — ''^ews 
Writings"  ^'English  Composition  with  Journalistic  Exer- 
cises/' ^^Beginnings  in  Journalism/'  ^'Journalistic  Writ- 
ing/'' and  others.  The  author  admits  that  none  exactly 
suits  his  idea,  although  essentially  all  signify  the  same 
effort — to  utilize  the  interest  in  newspaper  writing  in  the 
task  of  teaching  students  to  write.  To  one  teacher  this 
may  be  merely  English  composition ;  to  another  it  may  be 
vocational  or  pre-vocational  training.  Each,  however,  is 
likely  to  use  the  same  materials  in  much  the  same  way. 
Whatever  the  title  may  be,  the  author  has  endeavored  to 
put  together  the  ingredients  found  in  most  courses  of  this 
type. 

The  book  is  a  new  departure  in  that  it  is  not  concerned 
with  journalism  in  the  professional  sense,  as  have  been  tho 
books  written  for  newspaper  workers  and  for  students  in 
the  fully  organized  schools  of  journalism  in  the  universi- 
ties. It  does  not  purpose  to  train  newspaper  workers,  but 
it  aims  to  be  a  textbook  and  course  outline  for  teachers  who 
are  using  newspaper  writing  as  a  stimulus  to  student  effort 
in  composition. 

So  many  teachers  have  been  successful  of  late  in  the  use 
of  this  new  method  of  teaching  that  the  idea  is  no  longer 
experimental  or  particularly  novel,  whether  it  is  done  in 
a  regular  English  course  or  in  a  so-called  course  in  ''jour- 

o  1 0  o  J  5 


vi  PREFACE 

nalism"  or  "newspaper  writing."  The  number  of  these 
courses  is  multiplying  at  an  extremely  rapid  rate.  But 
many  of  the  teachers,  especially  those  ^vho  have  had  little 
newspaper  experience,  have  expressed  the  need  for  a  text- 
book and  course  outline  prepared  primarily  for  their  work. 
In  an  effort  to  aid  them,  the  author  has  attempted  in  this 
book  to  put  on  paper  such  of  the  methods  and  materials  of 
the  schools  of  journalism  as  would  seem  most  usable  and 
valuable.  In  doing  this,  he  has  tried  to  turn  to  account  his 
twelve  years'  experience  as  a  teacher  of  journalism  and  his 
work  as  writer  and  editor  for  newspapers  and  magazines. 
His  point  of  view  is  that  the  task  involved  in  these  courses 
is  not  so  much  vocational  or  professional  training  as  teach- 
ing the  art  of  writing  through  the  use  of  practice  material 
that  is  interesting  and  close  to  the  students'  daily  lives — 
so  close  that  they  will  approach  writing  with  eagerness, 
rather  than  with  repugnance.  The  effort  is  to  turn  out, 
not  trained  journalists  or  newspaper  men,  but  high-school 
and  college  graduates  who  can  express  their  thoughts  on 
paper. 

The  success  attained  by  the  teachers  of  this  new  sub- 
ject has  demonstrated  the  theory,  long  held  by  some 
teachers,  that  the  value  of  practice  writing  depends  largely 
upon  the  subject  matter.  Much  high-school  and  college 
composition  work  does  not  give  adequate  training  in  wilt- 
ing because  it  lacks  interest,  because  its  models  and  exer- 
cises are  remote  from  the  student's  daily  life,  and  because 
it  appears  to  have  no  '^practical"  value.  It  has  long  been 
evident  that  more  familiar,  "practical"  models  were 
needed.  The  teachers  of  journalism  have  found  that  the 
writing  of  articles  like  those  published  in  the  newspapers 
and  magazines  is  keenly  interesting,  and  the  things  w^ritten 
about  in  such  articles  are  as  close  to  the  student's  life  as 
any  other  subjects  that  might  be  chosen.  The  daily  news- 
paper, furthermore,  is  a  valuable  model  because  it  contains 


PREFACE  vii 

both  good  and  bad  exa^^ples.  While  much  of  its  writing 
is  hastily  and  inartisticallj  done,  a  considerable  portion 
is  extremely  effective  and  finished.  Selection  and  stndy  of 
its  examples  develop  discrimination. 

Learning  to  write  is,  after  all,  but  the  result  of  much 
practice,  and  the  chief  necessity  is  an  incentive.  'No 
student  will  ever  gain  any  practical  benefit  from  writing 
about  a  subject  in  which  he  has  little  interest  or  imder- 
standing,  and,  by  the  same  sign,  no  student  can  fail  to 
gain  benefit  from  trying  to  express  on  paper  some  of  the 
thoughts  and  knowledge  that  are  a  vital  part  of  his  life. 
The  truth  of  this  is  evidenced  in  the  schools  of  journalism 
by  the  fact  that  students  must  often  be  restrained  from 
writing  too  much. 

But  every  teacher  who  uses  this  book  must  see  his  aims 
clearly.  He  must  guide  his  student  along  the  path  toward 
ability  to  write  without  leading  him  to  think  that  he  is 
learning  to  be  a  newspaper  man,  or,  at  any  rate,  that  he  is 
taking  more  than  the  first  steps  in  professional  training. 
Without  desiring  to  disparage  or  undervalue  the  work  of 
teachers  who  must  stress  the  vocational  or  pre-vocational 
aspects,  the  author  feels  it  his  duty  to  urge  that  too  much 
emphasis  upon  the  professional  side  will  be  detrimental 
both  to  the  student  and  to  the  journalistic  profession.  One 
of  the  greatest  needs  in  the  newspaper  offices  of  today  is 
for  college  graduates — not  necessarily  graduates  of  schools 
of  journalism — ^but  for  men  and  women  whose  general 
education  has  extended  beyond  the  high  school.  Anything 
that  tends  to  make  a  young  man  believe  that  he  is  ready 
to  enter  the  journalistic  profession  without  the  broadest 
education  that  he  can  get  will  thwart  the  present  tendencies 
in  the  newspaper  itself  and  w^ill  launch  the  young  man  on 
his  career  without  proper  equipment  to  advance  above  the 
lower  positions  on  the  staff  imless  he  is  exceptionally 
gifted.     Broad  knowledge,  as  well  as  technical  skill,  are 


riii  PREFACE 

now  needed  for  success.  The  author  agrees  heartily  with 
the  resolution  passed  by  the  Western  Association  of 
Teachers  of  Journalism  meeting  at  the  University  of 
Oregon  in  December,  1915,  and  with  the  resolution  passed 
by  the  Xational  Council  of  Teachers  of  English  (high- 
school  and  college)  meeting  in  Chicago  in  December,  1920. 
A  similar  sentiment  was  expressed  in  both ;  said  the  west- 
ern teachers : 

We  oppose  the  introduction  into  high  schools  of  any  course 
in  "news-writing"  or  "journalism/^  or  any  course  that  shall 
be  so  conducted  and  so  advertised  as  to  encourage  students 
to  enter  the  newspaper  profession  without  further  education 
than  that  obtained  in  high  school.  We  do  not  favor  any  move- 
ment that  may  make  for  low  standards  in  journalism^  to  tend 
to  make  of  the  reporter's  position  a  ''^olind  alley"  occupation. 
There  should  be  full  realization  that  if  improperly  conducted 
such  courses  tend  to  disorganize  rather  than  improve  the 
newspaper  profession^  to  the  lasting  injury  of  the  public  and 
without  benefit  to  the  student. 

If  he  understands  his  purposes,  however,  no  such  danger 
faces  the  teacher  who,  in  trying  to  vitalize  the  work  of  his 
courses  in  composition,  makes  use  of  practice  in  newspaper 
writing  or  of  the  methods  of  the  schools  of  journalism. 
He  may  put  them  to  good  account  without  giving  his 
students  a  false  idea.  And  a  similar  effort  to  obtain  the 
benefit  without  the  bad  results  should  be  read  into  the  title 
of  this  book. 

In  the  exercises  of  this  textbook  will  be  seen  an  effort  to 
bring  into  the  composition  class  many  subjects  that  are 
closely  related  to  writing  but  are  seldom  emphasized  in 
the  teaching  of  writing.  One  cannot  write  without  know- 
iug  the  world  about  him,  and  there  is  no  better  way  to 
learn  the  art  of  writinc:  and  to  become  familiar  with  the 


PREFACE  ix 

world  about  than  actually  to  join  the  two  processes.  Such 
a  combination  makes  writing  a  vital  part  of  other  studies 
and  makes  other  studies  a  vital  part  of  composition.  The 
average  young  American  who  is  growing  up  into  citizen- 
ship, for  example,  is  strikingly  ignorant  of  the  government 
and  politics  of  his  local  community,  his  state,  and  the 
nation.  What  he  knows  is  theoretical  and  hazy.  He  lacks 
exact  facts.  What  better  method  is  there  of  developing 
his  knowledge  of  these  things  than  to  have  him  investigate 
them  and  write  about  them  ? 

Again,  his  knowledge  of  current  events,  of  what  is  going 
on  in  the  world,  is  indirect  and  inexact.  His  interest  is 
slight.  Throughout  his  student  days,  even  up  to  his  col- 
lege graduation,  he  is  absorbed  in  studies  and  personal 
activities.  If  he  is  to  grow  up  into  an  intelligent  citizen, 
his  interest  in  current  events  must  be  aroused  while  he  is 
a  student.  The  teacher  of  composition  can  do  this  as  no 
other  teacher  can. 

As  emphasis  must  be  laid  on  accuracy  in  knowledge  and 
in  facts  for  the  writing  of  articles  of  journalistic  character, 
an  excellent  opportunity  is  offered  to  the  teacher  of  jour- 
nalism to  lay  the  foundation  for  habits  of  exactness  and 
carefulness  that  will  continue  throughout  the  student's 
life.  It  is  to  meet,  in  a  degree,  these  needs  that  the  author 
has  included  the  Friday  ^'Accuracy  Exercises,"  a  series  of 
tasks  that  he  has  carried  on  for  some  years  in  a  college 
class  in  newspaper  writing. 

The  use  of  journalistic  material  for  practice  writing 
makes  necessary  a  study  of  American  ncAvspapers — a 
study  aimed  to  show  prospective  citizens  what  their  news- 
papers are  made  of  and  how  they  are  made,  what  their 
problems  are  and  why  these  problems  exist.  Too  many 
educated  persons  criticize  the  newspaper  and  jeer  at  it 
as  a  thing  beneath  their  contempt,  although,  meanwhile, 
they  read  it  daily  and  base  their  opinions  upon  what  it 


X  PREFACE 

tells  tliem.  Althoiigli  admitting  that  the  newspaper  has 
serious  faults,  one  cannot  but  condemn  such  an  attitude. 
The  newspaper  is  a  fact  in  American  life,  perhaps  one  of 
the  greatest  facts.  Its  influence  is  greater  than  that  of 
the  school,  the  church,  and  all  other  educational  and  pub- 
licity forces  combined.  It  is  the  only  printed  matter  read 
by  nine-tenths  of  the  people.  If  it  has  faults,  they  should 
be  corrected — slowly  and  sensibly.  But  no  one  has  the 
right  to  criticize  the  newspaper  until  he  has  studied  the 
problems  of  daily  newspaper  making  and  knows  the 
reasons  why  it  is  so,  for  no  higher  type  of  man  can  be 
found  in  any  profession  than  in  the  newspaper  profession. 
Most  criticism  is  silenced  by  a  day  in  a  newspaper  office. 
The  teacher's  part  should  be,  not  to  condemn  this  great 
force  before  his  students,  but  to  guide  them  into  under- 
standing its  problems  so  that  they  may  assist  in  rectifying 
whatever  faults  it  may  have.  To  aid  this  study,  the 
Thursday  newspaper  sketches  and  research  tasks  have  been 
incorporated  into  this  book.  The  author  was  urged  to 
make  these  sketches  historical  or  biographical,  but,  with 
the  time  available,  he  believes  that  the  study  of  "whys  and 
wherefores"  is  more  valuable. 

The  more  technical  problems  of  student  publications  are 
discussed  in  the  last  two  chapters  of  the  book  for  the 
teacher  who  finds  it  necessary  to  direct  the  student  paper. 
"Writing  for  the  school  publication  may  or  may  not  be 
incorporated  into  the  weekly  exercises,  depending  upon  the 
relation  of  the  class  to  the  publication. 

Briefly,  the  aims  of  the  book  are : 

1.  To  develop  ability  to  write  English  through  discus- 
sion of  it  in  terms  of  writing  familiar  to  the  students  and 
through  practice  in  writing  the  kinds  of  articles  seen  in 
daily  newspapers. 

2.  To  create  interest  in  current  events. 


PREFACE  xi 

3.  To  teach  understanding  of  newspapers  throngli  stndj 
of  their  problems  and  history. 

4.  To  develop  habits  of  accnracy  through  insistence 
upon  exact  details  in  the  writing  of  everyday  things  and 
through  drills  to  acquaint  the  student  with  facts  concern- 
ing his  community. 

5.  To  help  the  teacher  in  technical  problems,  especially 
in  the  managing  or  advising  of  student  publications:  (a) 
in  technical  problems,  such  as  editing  and  handling  of 
copy,  writing  of  headlines,  proofreading,  etc. ;  (h)  with 
discussion  of  problems  of  student  publications,  technical, 
business,  and  editorial,  and  suggestive  methods. 

The  method  of  the  book  is  based  on  the  supposition  that 
the  average  teacher  has  had  little  special  experience  in 
newspaper  writing.  It  is  therefore  systematically  ar- 
ranged so  that  the  teacher  need  only  follow  it,  lesson  by 
lesson,  and  assign  the  suggested  exercises,  perhaps  branch- 
ing out  occasionally  into  related  fields.  The  work  is 
divided  into  a  series  of  thirty-four  lessons,  each  to  com- 
prise one  week's  work  in  a  one-year  course,  or  two  weeks 
in  a  two-year  course.  Each  weekly  lesson  is  divided  into 
-Ryb  parts,  one  for  each  school  day,  as  follows : 

1.  Monday. — Discussion  of  one  phase  of  English  com- 
position in  terms  of  journalistic  writing  but  embodying 
necessary  principles  of  writing.  Usually  it  is  a  discussion 
of  a  certain  kind  of  newspaper  article  that  involves  certain 
principles  of  writing. 

2.  Tuesday. — Assignments  in  research,  news-gathering, 
oral  discussion,  and  writing,  involving  the  obtaining  of 
facts  and  the  preparation  of  something  like  a  newspaper 
article,  to  drive  home  the  significance  of  the  chapter  ex- 
planation. 

3.  Wednesday. — Further  written  or  oral  exercises  based 
on  the  work  of  the  two  preceding  days. 


xii  PREFACE 

4.  Thursday. — Discussion  and  study  of  some  phase  of 
newspaper  work,  involving  research  into  the  daily  news- 
paper itself. 

5.  Friday. — Study  of  current  events  and  an  exercise  in 
obtaining  and  mastering  a  small,  definite  group  of  facts 
concerning  the  community's  life,  to  develop  habits  of  ob- 
taining exact  information  and  using  it  accurately. 

In  general,  practically  all  essential  principles  of  English 
composition  are  embodied  in  the  book,  submerged  in  in- 
teresting practice  work.  Little  is  said  about  so-called 
^literary  writing,''  because  it  is  felt  that  the  teacher's  own 
instinct  and  the  student's  work  in  literature  courses  will 
supply  emphasis  on  that  element.  But  the  kind  of  writing 
advocated  is  that  of  the  present  day — the  concise,  exact, 
forceful  style  of  the  better  publications,  for  it  is  generally 
felt  that  such  a  style  will  survive.  Occasionally  the  lesson 
exercises  will  be  found  to  be  too  extensive  for  the  average 
class;  the  author's  intent  is  to  provide  the  teacher  wdth 
a  choice  of  practice  material  and  to  meet  the  needs  of 
various  schools.  The  Style  Sheet  in  Chapter  III  of  Part 
II  will  be  found  to  be  an  effective  means  of  exacting 
accuracy  in  the  elemental  details  of  writing;  the  style 
advocated  is  not  necessarily  the  best,  but  it  is  a  working 
average  of  newspaper  practices. 

Possible  cooperation  with  the  student  publication  may 
be  accomplished  by  the  substitution  of  tasks  of  writing  for 
the  publication  in  place  of  the  subjects  assigned.  If  all 
student  publications  were  alike  in  size,  organization, 
method,  or  frequency,  a  definite  scheme  of  cooperation 
would  have  been  written  into  these  exercises.  But  scarcely 
any  two  student  publications  are  alike.  A  teacher,  how- 
ever, who  is  conducting  both  a  class  in  journalistic  writing 
and  a  student  publication  will  find  that  the  exercises  are 
mainly  such  tasks  as  the  paper  requires  and  may  be  easily 
adapted  to  fit  the  occasion. 


PREFACE 


Xlll 


After  tliis  long  explanation,  wliich  seems  to  be  necessi- 
tated by  the  novelty  of  the  volume,  the  author  dedicates  his 
work  to  the  theme  that  is  closest  to  his  heart — the  training: 
of  young  Americans  to  know  the  best  in  their  mother 
tongue  and  to  be  able  to  use  it  in  expressing  their  thoughts 
through  voice  or  pen. 

G.  M.  H. 


CONTENTS 


Preface 


PART  I 


joue:n'alistic  WKiimG 


(The 

newspaper  studies  in  each  chapter 

are  printed  in 

italic) 

CHAPTER                                                                                                                                      PAGE 

I. 

Journalistic  Writing   ^ 3 

What  the  Newspaper  Contains  . 

9 

II. 

Elements  of  Interest^ 

13 

Newspaper  Policy. 

18 

III. 

Narration  . 
Kinds  of  News 

21 

27 

IV. 

Building  a  Narrative 
The  Writing  Staff. 

30 
37 

V. 

Paragraphs —  . 

The  Mechanical  Force 

39 

45 

YI. 

Narratives  with  a  Purpose 
The  Business  Office 

48 
58 

VII. 

Writing  Human  Interest  Stories  - 
Kinds   of  News  Emphasized 

60 

66 

VIII. 

Sentences,. • 

68 

The  Front  Page     . 

75 

IX. 

Description 

The  City  Editor    . 

> 

77 
84 

X. 

Writing  a  Description 
City  News  Sources 

86 
91 

XI. 

Use  op  Words  ^ 

The   Telegraph  Editor 

93 
99 

XII. 

Exposition 

Press   Associations 

102 
111 

XV 


x\^i 

CONTENTS 

CHAPTER 

XIII. 

Writing  ax  Exposition. 

Syndicate   Services 

XIV. 

FoKii  OP  Manuscript^. 
Copyreading   . 

XV. 

Xews  Narratives     . 
Headlines 

XVI. 

Writing  News  Narratives 
Dividing  the  Day. 

XVII. 

Eisiphasizing  News  Value  ^ 
Laying  the  Foundation 

XVIII. 

Reporting  Speeches 
Local  Ends     . 

XIX. 

Writing  Speech  Reports 

Gathering  Election  Returns 

XX. 

Writing  Interview   Stories  j^ 

Departments  .... 

XXI. 

Artict,f,s  Combining  Opinions-^ 

Comics,  Cartoons,  Humor   . 

XXII. 

Writing  about  Athletics 
The  Sport  Editor. 

XXIII. 

Social  News-/  . 
Social  News    . 

XXIV. 

Biographical  Sketches. 
Signed  Articles 

XXV. 

Editorials  That  Explain 
The  Editorial   Columns 

XXVI. 

Editorials  That  Comment^ 
Rest  of  Editorial  Page. 

XXVII. 

Editorials  That  Argue  .-^ 
The  Woman's  Page 

XXVIII. 

Replying  in  Editorialsv 
Advertising     . 

XXIX. 

Reporting  Dramatics     . 
Sensationalism 

XXX. 

Motion  Picture  Write-ups 
Physical  Make-up. 

CONTENTS 


xvii 


CHAPTER      ^  PAGE 

XXXI.    Reporting  Musical  E\^nt3 281 

Typography 286 

XXXII.     Reviewing  a  Book 288 

The  Linotype  Machine 292 

XXXIII.  Summarizing  Books       .       .       .       .    '  .       .  294 

Stereotyping 298 

XXXIV.  Publicity  Material  , 300 

Picture  Printing 305 


PART  II 

PEACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  STUDENT 
PUBLICATIONS 

I.     Management  of  Student  Publications     ,       .       .  311 

Organization  of  Staff .  314 

Financial  and  Business  Matters 323 

Type,   Size,  and  Make-u]) 336 

Editorial  Short  Cuts 355 

II.     Technical  Problems 366 

Form  of  Copy 367 

T^^pographical  Style 369 

Copy    Editing 369 

Type  Directions  and  Guide-lines       ....  376 

Headlines  and  Headings 383 

Proofreading 392 

III.     Sample  Style  Sheet    — ^ 400 

APPENDIX 

Books  on  Journalism 411 

Books  of  Reference 415 

Index 417 


PARTI 
JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


A  COURSE  IN 
JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

CHAPTER  I 
JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

The  expression  ''journalistic/'  used  in  the  title  of  this 
book,  must  not  rhislead  students  into  believing  that  the 
book  will  make  trained  newspaper  men  or  magazine  writers 
of  them.  'No  book  can  do  that.  All  that  it  can  do,  or  aims 
to  do,  is  to  help  them  to  learn  to  write.  The  chief  essen- 
tial in  learning  to  write  is  practice — to  write  and  write, 
and  then  to  write  some  more.  But  to  practice  writing  one 
must  have  something  to  write  about.  Some  persons  obtain 
practice  in  writing  by  composing  essays,  others  write 
themes  on  their  thoughts  and  impressions,  and  still  others 
write  from  imagination.  Among  the  most  convenient  sub- 
jects to  write  about  for  practice  are  the  events  and  doings 
in  the  world  about  us.  These  are  the  things  we  shall  write 
about  for  practice.  It  happens  that  such  are  the  things 
that  journalists  write  about,  and  that  is  why  we  shall  call 
our  work  ''journalistic  writing.'' 

Characteristics — What  is  the  difference  between  jour- 
nalistic writing  and  other  kinds  of  English  composition? 
Many  persons  speak  of  journalistic  writing  as  if  it  were 
some  special  kind  of  literary  gymnastic  that  requires  a 

3 


4  JOURNAIJSTIC  WRITING 

special  talent  and  a  special  vocabulary.  Many  persons 
speak  of  it  as  a  special  form  of  composition,  like  play 
writing,  short-story  writing,  or  verse  writing.  In  reality, 
journalistic  writing  is  just  the  plainest,  most  unassuming 
kind  of  English  composition;  it  is  simply  the  use  of  the 
English  language  to  tell  what  is  going  on  in  the  world.  As 
such,  it  has  no  special  style,  except  in  special  circum- 
stances, and  requires  no  very  special  talent  beyond  the 
ability  to  see  and  understand  what  is  taking  place  about  us, 
to  grasp  its  significance  and  relation  to  other  events,  and  to 
tell  others  what  we  have  seen  and  heard.  The  telling  may 
be  done  in  a  fine,  literary  w^ay  or  in  a  simple,  commonplace 
way;  one  journalist  may  be  better  than  another  in  per- 
ception, style,  or  fluency.  But,  after  all,  the  journalist's 
real  purpose  is  merely  to  see,  to  hear,  and  to  tell. 

Journalistic  writing,  to  be  sure,  differs  from  some  other 
kinds  of  writing  in  several  ways,  but  the  differences  are  not 
such  as  make  play  writing  different  from  story  writing,  or 
verse  writing  different  from  the  writing  of  orations. 
Journalistic  writing  differs  mainly  in  its  subject  matter 
and  purpose.  It  is  primarily  utilitarian.  It  is  writing 
that  is  done  on  the  spur  of  the  moment  for  a  definite  pur- 
pose. It  is  putting  on  paper  quickly  and  easily  a  narrative, 
a  description,  or  an  exposition  that  is  needed  to  relate  a 
current  event.  Later  we  shall  find  that  some  points  of 
technique  enter  into  it,  but  for  the  present  we  shall  think 
of  it  only  as  telling  on  paper  in  the  best  possible  form  what 
we  have  seen  and  heard. 

Subject  Matter. — One  of  the  chief  characteristics  of 
journalistic  writing  is  that  it  is  concerned  with  timely 
things,  with  current  events,  with  the  happenings  of  today. 
It  has  little  time  to  talk  about  the  past,  except  in  com- 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING  5 

parison  with  the  present,  and  little  time  to  try  to  foretell 
the  future,  except  in  pointing  out  the  significance  of  the 
present.  Its  subject  is  today.  It  is  primarily  concerned, 
furthermore,  with  facts.  The  joiirnalist  seldom  writes 
about  his  opinion  or  what  he  thinks,  and  seldom  brijigs 
himself  into  his  writings.  He  considers  himself  merely  a 
recorder  of  the  things  other  persons  are  doing  and  think- 
ing. This  being  so,  he  has  little  time  to  philosophize,  to 
express  opinions,  or  to  dream.  It  is  facts  he  seeks  and 
facts  he  tells. 

A  study  of  current  newspapers  and  periodicals  devoted 
to  fact  articles  (not  fiction) — the  only  models  for  journal- 
istic writers — ^will  show  that  their  subject  matter  is  almost 
entirely  concerned  with  doings  and  events.  They  may  be 
unexpected  events,  like  fires,  accidents,  or  crimes;  they 
may  be  expected  events,  like  meetings,  plans,  movements, 
or  legislation ;  they  may  be  expressions  of  opinion  by  prom- 
inent men  or  women,  as  given  in  speeches  or  interviews ; 
but  all  are  today's  happenings.  The  journalist  may  nar- 
rate, describe,  or  explain,  even  argue;  but  each  is  a  part 
of  his  effort  to  tell  of  today's  events. 

Sources  of  Material. — Journalistic  material  is  found  in 
the  world  about  us — the  things  that  persons  near  us  are 
doing  or  saying  and  the  things  that  are  happening  to  them. 
The  library,  history,  and  books  of  reference  are  sources  of 
information  only  in  assisting  the  writer  to  understand 
these  events  and  to  tell  them  clearly.  Newspapers  have 
systematic  ways  of  gathering  information  on  current 
events,  to  be  sure,  and  sources  of  information  from  which 
they  may  learn  about  the  events,  but  that  fact  does  not 
alter  the  character  of  their  subject  matter. 

Purpose. — Another  distinguishing  characteristic  of  jour- 


6  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

nalistic  writing  is  that  it  is  prepared  for  a  definite  use. 
The  journalist's  writing  is  utilitarian;  he  uses  the  English 
language  merely  to  transmit  thoughts.  To  him  the  means 
of  expression  is  no  more  than  a  tool,  not  a  structure  in 
itself.  Some  writers,  like  poets  and  essayists,  write,  not 
so  much  to  transmit  thought,  as  to  use  beautiful  words  and 
sentences ;  to  them  expression  is  almost  the  entire  concern. 
Other  writers  use  their  writing  to  convey  a  moral  subtly 
concealed  in  a  story.  Others  write  with  their  minds  on  the 
oral  effect  of  their  words  as  delivered  by  an  orator  on  a 
platform  or  by  an  actor  on  a  stage.  The  journalist  uses 
English  simply  to  tell  what  he  has  seen  and  heard,  realiz- 
ing that  his  reader  cares  more  for  the  things  he  tells  than 
for  the  way  in  which  he  tells  them. 

Rapidity — Journalistic  writing  is  done  rapidly.  Other 
writers  may  spend  months  or  years  pondering  over  their 
subject  matter  and  deciding  upon  its  form.  The  journalist 
must  be  able  to  write  at  once  and  rapidly  whatever  he  has 
to  say.  If  a  pencil  is  too  slow,  he  uses  a  typewriter.  He  is 
spurred  on  by  the  fact  that  his  subject  matter,  while  of 
intense  interest  today,  will  no  longer  be  of  interest  to- 
morrow or  perhaps  even  a  few  hours  later.  He  must  write 
it  now  or  never.  This  has  much  to  do  with  the  quality  and 
style  of  journalistic  writing.  It  is  sometimes  used  as  an 
excuse  for  bad  writing ;  again  it  is  given  as  the  reason  for 
^ood  writing.  At  any  rate,  this  quality  makes  journalistic 
writing  excellent  training  in  alertness  and  adaptability. 

For  Print — The  character  of  journalistic  writing  is 
affected  also  by  the  fact  that  it  is  always  done  for  print.  It 
is  to  be  used  at  once  in  a  newspaper  or  magazine.  The 
writer  therefore  learns  to  think  of  its  appearance  in  print. 
He  thinks  not  so  much  of  manuscript,  but  of  type  lines. 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING  7 

This  has  certain  important  effects  upon  the  form  in  which 
he  casts  his  writing,  as  will  be  seen  later. 

Ability  Required. — Two  kinds  of  ability  are  required  for 
success  in  journalistic  writing.  One  is  the  ability  to  see 
and  understand.  This  involves  seeing  all  the  details  in  an 
event,  separating  them,  judging  them,  relating  them,  and 
realizing  their  significance.  The  other  is  the  ability  to  tell 
what  was  seen  in  such  a  way  as  to  enable  the  reader  to  see 
the  same  thing.  Some  persons  may  be  more  gifted  than 
others,  but  neither  ability  fs  born  jji^ne,  and  both  may  be 
cultivated.  Behind  these  abilities,  if  the  writer  is  to  excel, 
must  be  broad  knowledge  and  education  to  enable  him  to 
understand  and  evaluate  the  things  he  sees  and  hears. 
There  was  a  time  when  journalistic  writing  in  America 
was  done  by  persons  of  scant  education;  it  was  a  distinct 
advance  when  the  high-school  graduate  took  their  place. 
Nowadays  a  college  education  is  becoming  more  and  more 
essential  to  journalists. 

Form  and  Style. — In  its  essence,  journalistic  writing  has 
no  characteristic  form,  style,  or  technique.  This  is  true 
only  in  a  general  way,  as  will  be  seen  later.  A  good  start- 
ing point,  however,  is  to  forget  all  about  style  and  to  avoid 
thinking  of  technique.  If  the  writer  who  is  just  learning 
allows  himself  to  think  of  style  and  technique,  he  will  very 
likely  acquire  a  disagreeable  affectation.  He  should  think 
only  of  w^hat  is  to  be  said  and  then  say  it  in  the  easiest  and 
most  natural  way. 

Models. — The  models  followed  must  be  the  writings  of ^ 
journalists.    It  will  not  do  to  write  news  items  in  the  style 
of  an  essayist  or  an  orator.     Journalists'  writings  appear 
mainly  in  newspapers  and  magazines,  and  these  must  be 
the  models.    But  in  usins:  them  as  models,  the  writer  must 


8  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

consider  the  haste  with  which  they  are  prepared,  the  inex- 
perience of  many  of  the  writers,  and  the  fact  that  many 
may  be  poor  examples.  He  must  learn  to  select  the  good 
from  the  bad  and  to  learn  from  both. 

Rudiments  of  English — The  assumption  is  made  at  the 
outset  that  the  students  who  use  this  book  have  already 
mastered  the  elements  of  English  grammar  and  know  the 
rudiments  of  composition.  For  explanations  of  grammar, 
punctuation,  and  spelling  it  will  be  necessary  to  turn  to 
one  of  the  many  excellent  books  on  the  elements  of  writing. 
This  book  is  built  for  students  who  have  reached  the  stage 
of  knowing  how  to  express  their  ideas  in  English,  but  need 
practice  to  develop  fluency  and  writing  ability.  If  they 
have  not  yet  mastered  the  rudiments,  they  must  master 
them  as  they  practice.  Writing,  like  other  physical  and 
mental  accomplishments,  is  dependent  upon  conscientious, 
systematic  practice.  One  would  hardly  expect  to  play  the 
piano  until  he  had  trained  his  mind  and  hands  by  per- 
sistent practice ;  in  the  same  way  he  can  hardly  expect  to 
write  a  masterpiece  the  first  time  he  tries.  Only  practice 
can  develop  and  bring  out  the  gift  of  music  or  of  expres- 
sion that  is  within  one. 

EXERCISES  I 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  select  two  fairly  long  news 
articles  from  a  current  newspaper  and  analyze  them 
with  reference  to  the  characteristics  of  journalistic  writ- 
ing discussed.  Bring  the  articles  to  class  and  be  pre- 
pared to  give  an  orderly  talk  on  them. 

Tuesday 

1.  Make  a  list  of  events  of  last  week  in  your  school  and 
city  about  which  people  would  be  interested  to  read. 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING  9 

2.  Note  which  of  the  articles  would  involve  narration; 
which  would  involve  description;  which  would  involve 
exposition. 

3.  List  the  articles  on  subjects  of  national  import  in  to- 
day's newspaper  and  determine  which  have  some  con- 
nection with  your  city. 

Wednesday 

1.  Obtain  the  facts  concerning  some  recent  event  in  your 
school  or  city  and  write  a  200-word  article  relating  this 
event  in  such  a  way  as  to  interest  one  of  your  class- 
mates. Be  prepared  to  read  this  in  class  so  that  a 
classmate  may  judge  whether  the  narrative  is  clear  and 
interesting  and  if  not,  why  not. 

2.  Or  write  a  narrative  of  the  latest  public  function  held 
in  the  school. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Note:  This  day  each  week  will  be  devoted  to  the  study  of 
newspapers  and  newsjDaper  making.  The  study  will  be  taken 
up  step  by  step,  and  students  will  investigate  the  newspaper  that 
they  read  regularly  and  any  others  that  are  available.  It  would 
be  well  for  the  class  to  club  together  to  subscribe  to  well-known 
American  newspapers',  reading  a  different  one  each  month;  the 
local  library  may  afford  sufficient  variety  for  this  study. 

What  the  Newspaper  Contains 

Many  persons  are  finding  fault  with  the  American  news- 
paper nowadays.  Some  believe  that  it  prints  many  things 
that  it  should  not  print;  others  declare  that  it  leaves  out 
many  essential  things.  Often  the  judgment  is  based  upon 
a  hasty  and  hazy  impression — a  chance  headline  or  a  minor 
misstatement.  Before  we  can  judge  the  newspaper,  we  must 
study  its  content  to  see  what  it  is  made  of.  In  general,  its 
primary  purpose  is  to  print  "the  news,"  but  that  is  a  very 
large,  inexact  idea.  Perhaps  a  better  expression  of  the  idea 
is  that  it  endeavors  to  relate  timely  events  about  which  many 


10  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

persons  wish  to  read.  But  what  do  persons  wish  to  read? 
What  kinds  of  persons  are  its  readers?  Some  are  educated 
and  others  are  not;  some  are  serious-minded  and  others  are 
frivolous.  Among  its  readers  are  laboring  men,  large  em- 
ploj-ers,  merchants,  doctors,  bankers,  school  teachers,  shop 
girls,  preachers,  young  men,  old  ladies — every  grade  of  per- 
sonality, intellect,  and  training  known  to  modern  society.  Is 
there  any  one  subject  that  will  interest  them  all?  Yes,  a 
few  subjects,  but  beyond  them,  what  is  left  to  do  but  to 
print  things  that  will  interest  as  many  as  possible,  at  the 
same  time  including  some  little  bit  for  each  particular  class 
to  which  the  journal  caters?  Does  the  newspaper  that  you 
read  do  that  ?  The  only  way  to  find  out  is  to  study  it  column 
by  column,  article  by  article.    Ask  these  questions  of  it. 

1.  How  many  different  subjects  are  mentioned  on  the  front 
page  ?  What  kinds  of  persons  will  be  interested  in  each  ? 
Is  one  class  appealed  to  more  than  another? 

2.  How  many  cities  are  mentioned?  How  large  a  picture 
of  the  world  does  the  newspaper  give? 

3.  Look  through  the  entire  paper  and  decide  why  each 
particular  article  was  published — just  whom  the  editor 
aims  to  interest. 

4.  Count  the  purely  instructional  and  informative  articles 
in  one  issue.    Are  there  enough? 

5.  While  reading  what  your  newspaper  says  about  the  most 
important  current  political  problem,  determine  whether 
it  presents  both  sides  as  a  basis  for  intelligent  judgment. 

6.  What  besides  the  daily  newspaper  do  your  parents  read? 
How  many  different  newspapers  have  you  ever  read? 
Have  you  ever  seen  an  English  newspaper  and  compared 
it  with  ours? 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

Newspaper  and- magazine  articles  are  built  of  facts.    Their 
only  value  consists  in  the  accuracy  of  the^Jacts.    As  important 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING  11 

as  the  facts  are  the^mes  of  persons  mentioned,  and,  unless 
names  are  reported  correctly^  The  facts  are  meaningless.  Be- 
cause their  work  involves  constant  handling  of  names,  con- 
scientious newspaper  men  train  themselves  "to  get  names 
right/'  They  try  to  know  the  names  that  recur  in  their 
articles;  they  know  every  officeholder  in  the  local  govern- 
ment; they  know  the  full  names  of  important  local  business 
men;  they  try  to  know  everybody  and  his  full  name,  with 
correct  spelling  and  initials.  They  train  themselves  to  this, 
and,  if  we  are  to  achieve  as  much  accuracy  in  our  writing 
as  they  do,  we  must  do  the  same. 

Memory  for  facts  and  names  comes  with  practice,  and  in 
learning  one  set  of  names  we  train  ourselves  to  learn  another 
more  easily.  The  learning  of  the  names  of  the  candidates 
on  the  election  ballot  makes  it  easier  for  the  newspaper  man 
to  acquire  the  names  of  the  city  aldermen.  The  securing  of 
these  names  also  leads  to  an  understanding  of  the  organiza- 
tion of  our  community  that  few  persons  possess. 

There  are  certain  short  cuts  to  mastering  necessary  facts 
and  names.  Initials,  for  example,  are  as  much  a  part  of  a 
man's  name  as  his  surname.  What  would  the  Smiths  do  with- 
out them?  But  initials  themselves  are  elusive.  It  is  not 
hard,  however,  to  remember  three  full  names.  To  fix  them 
in  mind,  repeat  them  with  the  lips  and  write  them,  com- 
bining oral  and  visual  impressions.  When  you  see  a  name, 
repeat  it  and  try  to  call  up  an  idea  associated  with  it  which 
will  enforce  the  impression  in  your  mind.  When  you  need 
to  use  the  name,  the  idea  will  come  first  and  bring  the  name 
with  it.  Perhaps  a  jingle  or  a  rhythm  in  the  name  will 
aid.  The  longer  you  hold  the  name  in  mind  and  the  more 
ideas  you  group  about  it,  the  longer  its  memory  will  cling. 
Then  when  you  need  it,  try  to  recall  it  by  writing  it  in  full 
before  you  look  it  up;  the  effort  will  fix  it  more  firmly. 
Before  long,  the  practice  will  enable  you  to  seize  a  group 
of    names    or    facts    and    retain    them.      You    will   be    ac- 


12  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

quiring  thereby  some  of  the  mental  equipment  that  makes  a 
writer. 

1.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  teachers  or  department  heads  on 
the  faculty  with  correct  spelling  and  full  names,  the 
subjects  they  teach^  and  their  home  addresses.  As  you 
write  each  name,  repeat  it  and  call  up  associated  ideas. 
Aid  yourself  in  grasping  the  list  by  noting  the  total 
number,  the  number  of  men  and  women,  the  number 
of  teachers  in  each  branch.  Make  a  mental  picture  of 
the  list. 

2.  Be  ready  to  reproduce  the  list  in  writing  in  class.  The 
teacher  will  read  the  list  of  subjects  taught  and  you  will 
supply  the  names  and  addresses.  You  will  probably 
not  succeed  fully  with  this  first  list,  but  file  it  away  for 
use  in  some  future  article  and  clear  decks  for  the  next 
list.  The  next  time  you  need  to  use  a  teacher's  name, 
try  to  recall  it  from  memory. 

3.  Current  News. — In  class,  you  will  discuss  the  news  of 
the  week,  its  background  and  significance,  so  as  to  keep 
posted  on  what  is  going  on  in  the  world.  This  discus- 
sion of  the  news  will  be  taken  up  on  Friday  each  week, 
and  it  will  be  best  to  form  the  habit  of  reading  the 
newspaper  regularly  every  day. 


CHAPTER  II 
ELEMENTS  OF  INTEREST 

One  of  the  first  requirements  of  a  journalistic  article  is 
that  it  mnst  interest  a  large  number  of  readers.  However 
well  it  is  told,  its  subject  must  be  such  that  many  will 
wish  to  read  it.  That  is  the  chief  basis  on  which  editors 
of  newspapers  and  magazines  judge  journalistic  writing 
— is  the  article  of  interest  to  many  persons  ? 

Interest  in  any  article  depends,  in  a  general  way,  upon 
three  elements:  (1)  .subject  matter  of  the  facts  or  event 
related,  (2)  manner  in  which  they  are  related,  and  (3) 
kind  of  reader.  Of  these  three,  the  first  must  be  considered 
of  greatest  importance  because  of  the  utilitarian  nature  of 
the  writing.  The  second  element  simply  adds  to  or  de- 
tracts from  the  interest  given  by  the  subject  matter.  The 
third  is  rather  beyond  the  control  of  the  average  journal- 
ist; other  writers  may  choose  their  audiences  and  write 
directly  to  certain  kinds  of  readers,  but  the  journalist 
writes  for  everybody.  In  other  words,  in  trying  to  interest 
everybody,  he  writes  to  the  average  person. 

Since  the  subject  matter  of  the  facts  or  the  event  has  so 
much  to  do  with  the  interest  in  the  article,  it  is  well  to 
note  what  kinds  are  most  interesting  to  the  average  reader. 
Taking  ourselves  as  average  readers,  in  what  kinds  of 
events  are  we  most  interested  ?  /<ix.^a  ■. 

^    Timely  Events — Everyone  who  is  alert  and  up-to-date 
is  more  interested  in  things  that  happened  this  morning 


14  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

than  in  things  that  happened  last  week  or  last  year.  The 
mere  fact  that  the  event  ''just  happened"  is  sufficient  to 
interest  most  persons.  We  live  in  the  present,  and  events 
of  yesterday  are  continually  being  crowded  from  our 
minds  by  events  of  today.  One  of  the  first  elements  of 
interest,  therefore,  is  timeliness. 

Near  Events. — The  average  reader,  secondly,  is  more 
interested  in  events  that  take  place  near  him  than  those  at 
a  distance.  The  fact  that  a  burglar  entered  Jones'  house 
on  our  street  and  stole  a  silver  watch  is  much  more  inter- 
esting than  the  fact  that  robbers  stole  $10,000  from  a 
postoffice  in  another  city.  The  wreck  of  a  neighbor's  auto- 
mobile keeps  us  talking  much  longer  than  a  train  wreck  in 
Alaska  which  resulted  in  several  deaths.  The  average 
man,  it  seems,  is  so  much  interested  in  things  going  on 
about  him — things  happening  to  persons  he  knows  or  near 
places  he  knows — that  he  has  little  interest  left  for  events 
that  take  place  at  a  distance,  outside  his  immediate  ken. 
And  the  farther  away  the  event  is,  the  less  is  he  interested 
in  it.  Dj.stgjice,  therefore,  is  an  important  factor  affect- 
ing interest. 

Events  that  * '  Touch. ' ' — The  average  reader  is  more  in- 
terested in  events  that  take  place  near  him  largely  because 
they  have  some  small  effect  upon  his  own  life.  In  the 
same  way,  any  event,  nearby  or  far  away,  that  affects  his 
life  interests  him  at  once.  We  are  interested  only  in  a 
general  way  in  telephone  rates  in  England,  but  if  rates  in 
our  town  are  raised  25  cents  a  month,  we  begin  to  talk 
about  it  at  once.  The  event  is  not  only  near,  but  it  affects 
us  personally.  The  average  man  is  much  more  interested 
in  the  election  of  the  new  mayor  in  his  town  than  in  the 
overthrow  of  the  Chinese  republic  because  this  new  mayor 


ELEMENTS  OF  INTEREST  15 

may  help  to  lower  local  taxes  or  to  pave  Main  street. 
Although  he  may  never  expect  to  see  Washington  or  the 
presidential  candidate,  the  average  man  is  interested  in  his 
election  because  every  man  in  America  is  part  owner  in 
the  government.  Since  this  interest  exists  in  everyone,  the 
journalistic  writer  is  safe  in  assuming  that  his  readers  will 
be  interested  in  any  event,  near  or  far,  that  "touches" 
their  personal  lives. 

Hobbies — Almost  every  man  and  woman  has  some  spe- 
cial outside  interest,  some  hobby,  to  which  he  devotes  his 
leisure  time  and  spare  energy.  The  hobby  may  be  golf, 
motoring,  baseball,  postage  stamps,  or  silver  teapots, 
chicken  raising.  Browning,  or  any  other  subject  not 
directly  related  to  the  task  of  earning  a  living.  Active 
persons  ride  their  hobbies  by  developing  avocations;  less 
active  persons  are  satisfied  simply  to  read  about  them. 
Much  journalistic  writing  of  today  appeals  to  this  inter- 
est, that  is,  all  sporting  sections,  articles  on  geneolog}% 
book  reviews,  amateur  agriculture,  gardening,  moving 
picture  drama,  radio  telephony,  etc.  The  hobbies  are 
diversified,  but  certain  ones  seem  to  be  common  to  the 
American  people,  and  events  related  to  them  make  good 
subjects  for  journalistic  articles. 

Human  Interest — Emotional  interest  is  so  strong  in 
most  persons  that  almost  any  event  that  appeals  to  the 
emotions  is  a  good  subject  for  journalistic  writing.  It 
may  be  simply  a  story  of  a  child  or  an  animal  that  catches 
the  reader's  sympathy.  It  may  be  a  deeper  story  of  happi- 
ness or  suffering  that  grips  the  reader's  heart.  Or  it  may 
be  a  more  or  less  worthy  appeal  to  a  man's  good  or  bad 
passions.  The  scrupulous  journalist  appeals  only  to  the 
worthy  emotions  of  pity,  sympathy,  and  love;  some  other 


16  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

journalists  appeal  to  baser  emotions.  It  is  because  of  this 
emotional  interest  that  so-called  sensational  newspapers 
thrive.  Even  so,  in  seeking  events  that  may  be  made  sub- 
jects of  journalistic  writing,  it  is  w^ell  not  to  overlook  this 
possibility,  although  the  writer  must  take  care  that  his 
writing  will  not  do  harm. 

Unusual  Events — The  bump  of  curiosity  is  so  large 
that  almost  any  event  that  is  merely  unusual  is  a  good 
subject.  The  mere  fact  that  it  is  out  of  the  ordinary  will 
create  interest  in  it.  The  difficulty  is  to  judge,  from  one 
person's  limited  experience,  just  how  unusual  any  par- 
ticular subject  is.  It  may  seem  quite  extraordinary  to  the 
writer,  but  commonplace  to  others.  One  of  our  teachers 
may  evolve  what  seems  to  us  to  be  unusual  methods  of 
teaching  Latin;  it  will  appear  to  be  a  good  subject  until 
we  find  that  many  other  teachers  in  other  cities  are  using 
the  same  methods.  It  is  to  enable  writers  to  judge  such 
events  and  subjects  that  broad  knowledge  and  education 
are  necessary. 

Instructive  Articles — In  these  days  of  much  education 
aud  spreading  of  knowledge  almost  everyone  is  interested 
in  any  subject  that  instructs  him  and  extends  his  knowl- 
edge. There  are  few  readers  who  would  not  be  glad  to 
know  how  a  carburetor  works,  why  a  geyser  gushes,  what 
causes  dew,  why  orioles  build  hanging  nests,  how  the  tax 
assessor  figures  incomes,  and  many  other  things.  The 
difficulty,  with  so  many  writers  telling  all  these  things,  is 
to  find  new  subjects.  Wi1;^li  the  desire  to  be  instructed  goes 
the  desire  to  learn  about  something  new. 

Related  Subjects. — The  constant  shifting  of  scenes  and 
crowding  of  events  results  in  a  continually  changing  inter- 
est in  various  kinds  of  subjects.    With  all  Europe  at  war, 


ELEMENTS  OF  INTEREST  17 

everyone  was  interested  in  warlike  subjects ;  with  the  pro- 
jecting of  a  new  trolley  line,  local  citizens  are  immediately 
interested  in  other  trolley  lines ;  the  appearance  of  a  new 
coin  recalls  interest  in  previous  coins ;  a  train  wreck  starts 
people  talking  of  other  train  wrecks.  The  interest  of 
readers  is  changing  day  by  day,  and  the  journalist  is 
continually  watching  for  a  chance  to  take  advantage  of  a 
particular  interest  in  order  to  write  about  things  that  may 
be  associated  with,  or  ^'hitched  up  to,''  that  interest. 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  kinds  of  things  readers  are 
interested  in.  A  part  of  the  journalist's  work  is  to  analyze 
interest  in  this  way  and  to  discover  subjects  and  events 
related  to  the  various  kinds  of  interest.  /  In  newspaper, 
parlance  this  interest  is  called  news  value ^  for  events  andl 
subjects  that  interest  many  readers  are  said  to  be  news. 
To  judge  the  real  value  or  interest  in  any  event,  the  writer 
must,  to  some  extent,  take  into  consideration  the  reader  he 
is  writing  for.  If  he  is  writing  for  business  men,  he  will 
not  talk  of  the  same  things  that  he  would  in  writing  for 
farmers;  young  law;)^ers  are  not  interested  in  the  same 
things  as  aged  preachers.  The  journalist,  in  seeking  the 
average  man,  can  best  judge  the  value  of  his  subjects  by 
trying  them  out  on  his  friends,  if  they  seem  to  be  average 
readers.  Another  way  is  toseek  subjects  and  events 
related  to  the  things  that  people  are  talking  about. 

Another  consideration  is  that  of  deciding  how  much  to 
tell  of  any  subject,  or  how  long  the  article  shall  be.  The 
only  safe  way  to  decide  is  to  determine  luJiy  the  subject  or 
event  is  of  interest  to  the  average  reader,  to  select  in  the 
subject  the  details  that  are  a  part  of  this  interest  or  reason, 
and  to  include  only  those  details.  Other  phases  of  the 
subject  that  are  not  of  especial  interest  may  be  discarded. 


18  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

TliJ^lengtli  of^  an  article  therefore  depends  on  the  amount 
of  espec'wlhj  interesting  material  in  it. 
-  .^ 

EXERCISES  II 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  analyze  the  interest  in  each 
story  on  the  front  page  of  a  current  newspaper.  Deter- 
mine what  kind  of  reader  each  would  interest  especially. 
Be  prepared  to  discuss  this  orally  in  class. 

Tuesday 

1.  Make  a  list  of  recent  events  or  current  subjects  for 
newspaper  articles,  including  in  the  list  at  least  one  sub- 
ject for  each  of  the  kinds  of  interest  mentioned  in  the 
chapter. 

2.  In  class,  a  student  will  act  as  an  "average  reader^  and 
try  to  determine  which  of  the  subjects  on  your  list  would, 
interest  him  most — and  why. 

3.  In  the  subjects  that  interest  this  "average  reader*'  de- 
termine what  phases  or  details  are  a  part  of  this  interest. 

Wednesday 

1.  Select  the  subject  that  seemed  most  interesting  to  your 
classmate  and  write  it  up,  making  it  as  long  as  is  neces- 
sary to  give  all  the  interesting  details  and  phases. 

2.  In  class,  select  another  person  as  "average  reader'' — 
your  father,  perhaps — and  show  how  the  article  should 
be  changed  to  interest  him.  Mark  the  passages  to  be 
eliminated  and  the  additions  to  be  made. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Policy- 
Last  week  we  began  to  investigate  the  content  of  the  news- 
paper.    We  found  that,  in  general,  the  newspaper  tries  to 
print  "News  of  interest  to  a  large  number  of  readers."    Did 


ELEMENTS  OF  INTEREST  19 

we  find  any  personality  or  policy  in  its  selection  or  emphasis? 
The  newspaper  is,  after  all,  a  human  institution  and  a  reflec- 
tion of  the  human  minds  that  make  it.  Minds  la.  i^e  enough 
to  direct  a  newspaper  usually  have  biases  and  opinions.  In 
former  years  a  newspaper  was  essentially  an  expression  of  one 
editor  s  opinion ;  as  this  opinion  was  most  decided  concerning 
matters  of  politics  and  government,  the  newspaper  was  likely 
to  be  partisan,  if  not  actually  the  organ  of  a  party.  The 
strictly  partisan  newspaper  is  rapidly  disappearing  in  this 
country,  and  year  by  year  each  newspaper  is  becoming  more 
and  more  impersonal  in  the  expression  of  the  opinions  of  a 
group  of  editors.  Yet  we  hear  men  say  that  such-and-such 
a  newspaper  has  "back  bone";  we  question  a  newspaper's 
''honesty,''  or  we  criticize  its  "policy."  It  would  appear, 
therefore,  that  something  of  the  old  personality  remains,  or 
that  readers  would  like  it  to  be  there.  Let  us  look  for  it  in 
the  individual  articles  that  are  printed,  both  in  the  editorial 
column  and  in  the  news  columns. 

1.  Is  your  newspaper  an  organ  of  a  political  party?  If  so, 
what  ?    If  not,  what  political  beliefs  does  it  express  ? 

2.  If  your  newspaper  is  partisan,  caii  you  find  any  evidence 
of  its  partisanship  in  its  news  articles? 

3.  Is  your  newspaper  written  for  educated,  thinking 
readers,  or  does  it  try  to  supply  ready-made  opinions 
for  those  who  lack  education  and  do  not  think  ?  Search 
individual  articles. 

4.  Does  it  lean  toward  the  laboring  man  or  toward  the 
employer?  Does  it  express  a  decided  foreign  policy? 
Is  it  strictly  unbiased  in  its  handling  of  the  large  ques- 
tions of  the  day  ?  Is  it  consistent  in  its  policy  ?  Is  the 
same  policy  seen  both  in  the  news  columns  and  in  the 
editorials?     Is  it  "honest";  does  it  have  "courage"? 

5.  Judging  from  your  newspaper  study  so  far,  how  would 
you  define  "news"? 


20  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  principal  student  organizations.  Note 
the  character  of  each  organization,  its  purpose,  its  size, 
the  time  and  place  of  its  meetings,  the  time  and  methods 
of  election  of  officers  and  members.  Note  spelling  of 
unusual  names.  If  possible  note  the  age  of  each  organ- 
ization. Fix  the  list  in  mind  and  reproduce  it  by- 
methods  similar  to  those  used  with  the  list  of  teachers, 
later  file  it  away  for  future  use. 

2.  In  class,  the  teacher  will  ask  you  to  write  some  of  these 
from  memory.  You  will  also  discuss  orally  what  you 
know  of  these  organizations.  Discuss  the  important  news 
of  the  week  and  its  significance. 


CHAPTER  III 
NARRATION 

All  of  the  four  general  kinds  of  writing — narration, 
description,  exposition,  and  argumentation — have  their 
places  in  newspaper  and  magazine  writing,  but  narration 
is  closest  to  the  true  nature  of  journalistic  writing,  because 
it  involves  the  telling  of  a  series  of  events  or  actions.  The 
journalist  is  primarily  interested  in  events,  and  his  love  of 
the  narrative  form  is  so  strong  that  he  introduces  action 
into  almost  everything  he  writes.  Even  his  de-scriptions 
and  expositions  are  interspersed  with  action.  That  is  one 
reason  why  the  journalist  calls  his  articles  "stories.'^ 

True  Stories. — But  all  the  realm  of  narration  is  not  open 
to  the  journalistic  writer,  when  he  is  playing  his  proper 
role.  Other  story-tellers  are  not  limited  to  facts  nor  con- 
strained by  truth;  in  fact,  their  very  excellence  often  de- 
pends upon  the  amount  of  imaginative  or  fictitious  action 
they  develop.  In  writing  short-stories,  novelettes,  novels, 
plays,  scenarios,  or  any  other  kind  of  fiction,  they  depend 
almost  entirely  upon  imagination  for  subject  matter.  The 
journalist,  on  the  other  hand,  writes  only  true  stories,  or, 
at  least  tries  to  write  the  true  stories  of  events  that  have 
actually  taken  place.  All  that  is  fictitious  or  imaginative 
is  closed  to  him;  he  may  not  invent  a  single  episode. 
Strange  to  say,  however,  the  closing  of  the  field  of  fiction, 
instead  of  hampering  him,  turns  him  into  a  field  that  is 
many  times  richer.     The  man  who  first  said,  ^'Truth  is 

21 


22  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

stranger  than  fiction/'  might  have  added,  ^^and  more  inter- 
esting." While  the  fiction  writer  is  sitting  at  his  desk 
racking  his  brains  for  fictitious  events  and  imagined  epi- 
sodes, the  journalist  goes  out  into  the  street  and  finds  a 
dozen  thrilling  human  stories  of  real  life.  In  each  he 
finds  his  episodes  and  characters  ready-made  and  so  true 
to  life  that  no  critic  can  question  his  psychology.  In  being 
turned  away  from  the  imaginative  field,  he  is  forced  to 
develop  observation  and  understanding  of  life. 

Different  from  Fiction. — With  the  imaginative  field 
closed  to  him,  the  journalistic  narrator  must  follow  a  differ- 
ent method  in  building  his  stories.  The  fiction  writer  starts 
with  a  purpose  or  a  moral  and  builds  up  imagined  action 
and  episodes  to  illustrate  it.  The  journalistic  narrator, 
finding  his  episodes  and  action  ready-made,  depends  upon 
his  observation  to  pick  up  the  various  threads  of  his  story 
and  finds  the  meaning  of  the  story  after  he  has  gathered 
the  material.  He  is  therefore  much  concerned  with  the 
real  order  of  the  episodes ;  it  may  involve  the  real  meaning 
of  the  story.  His  method  is  inductive  and  he  is  as  careful 
to  gather  and  arrange  facts  properly  as  the  scientist  is  to 
note  and  compute  his  data. 

The  process  of  telling  a  true  story  of  real  life  involves : 

(1)  investigation  of  the  event  to  find  out  what  happened; 

(2)  study  of  the  various  actions  and  episodes  to  discover 
in  what  order  they  really  occurred  and  how  they  are  re- 
lated; and  (3)  arrangement  of  the  episodes  in  such  an 
order,  actual  or  othenvise,  as  will  give  the  reader  a  true 
idea  of  the  event.  This  takes  us  back  to  the  subject  of 
outlining.  The  action  must  be  divided  into  its  various 
stages  and  must  be  arranged  in  logical  sequence.  It  is  in 
this  that  skill  is  shown.      Sometimes  a  story  is  told  in 


NARRATION  23 

exactly  tlie  order  in  whicli  the  action  took  place ;  sometimes 
it  must  be  told  in  a  wholly  new  order  that  will  give  a  better  '\^ 
idea  of  the  relation  of  the  episodes  and  their  significance.  \^' 

Unity. — In  narration,  unity  means  the  telling  of  all  the 
essential  parts  of  the  story  and  nothing  else.  It  would 
seem  quite  unnecessary  to  speak  of  this,  but  the  fact  is  that 
the  action  that  a  story-teller  relates  in  his  story  is  only 
a  small  part  of  the  action  that  really  took  place.  His 
selection  shows  his  skill;  almost  any  event  makes  a  good 
story  if  the  proper  parts  of  it  are  told,  and  almost  any  good 
story  can  be  spoiled  if  the  details  are  badly  selected.  The 
commonest  offense  in  this  respect  is  to  tell  too  much,  to 
wander  from  the  subject.  Suppose  that  you  are  telling  the 
story  of  the  robbery  of  a  bank  and  the  subsequent  pursuit, 
which  lasted  three  days  before  the  robbers  were  captured. 
Out  of  the  seventy-two  hours  that  elapsed  during  the  event, 
during  only  half  an  hour  each  day  perhaps  were  the  rob- 
bers and  the  police  doing  anything  related  to  the  theft  and 
pursuit.  During  the  other  seventy  and  one-half  hours, 
they  were  eating,  sleeping,  and  doing  other  things  that 
might  really  be  episodes  in  other  stories.  The  inexperi- 
enced writer  tries  to  tell  the  reader  everything  that  they 
did  during  the  entire  seventy-two  hours ;  he  may,  in  fact, 
bring  in  other  events  entirely  outside  that  time.  The 
experienced  writer,  realizing  that  only  the  one  and  one-half 
hours  contain  ^'action''  for  his  story,  skims  over  the  rest 
or  omits  it  entirely.  The  same  fault  is  evident  in  narra- 
tions profuse  with  unnecessary  description  and  explana- 
tion. They  remind  us  of  tiresome  jokesters  who  start  to 
tell  an  anecdote  and  spend  half  an  hour  upon  preliminary 
explanation. 

It  is  quite  as  serious,  moreover,  to  tell  too  little  as  to 


24  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

tell  too  mucL  Perhaps  because  they  are  so  familiar  with 
the  story,  story-tellers  often  leave  out  some  of  the  essential 
action.  Perhaps  they  forget  to  tell  in  the  proper  place 
that  the  police  found  in  the  bank  vault  a  derby  hat  v^itli 
initials  in  it.  Later  when  the  initials  are  used  in  tracing 
the  robbers,  the  reader  feels  that  some  of  the  story  has  been 
omitted.  Or  if  the  writer  drags  in  the  fact  with  an 
apology,  ^'I  forgot  to  say,"  the  effect  is  just  as  bad.  The 
skill  in  story-telling  is  shown  in  preliminary  planning  so 
that  the  writer  is  sure  that  he  is  telling  enough,  and  yet  not 
too  much. 

Full  Length — Unity  in  narration  also  involves  con- 
densation or  expansion  of  essential  action.  Any  story  is 
so  rich  in  details  that  the  writer  may  make  its  length  w^hat- 
ever  he  will.  The  same  story  may  be  told  as  an  anecdote, 
a  short-story,  or  a  novelette.  This  does  not  mean  that 
essential  action  is,  or  is  not,  omitted.  It  concerns  the 
amount  of  space  devoted  to  each  essential  stage  in  the 
action.  The  idea  may  be  illustrated  by  the  difference 
between  a  full-length  story  and  the  synopsis  which  appears 
at  the  head  of  each  installment  of  a  serial  story  in  a  maga- 
zine. Comparisons  of  any  installment  with  the  synopsis 
that  summarizes  it  will  show  that  there  is  the  same  amount 
of  action  in  each,  although  one  occupies  twenty  times  as 
much  space  as  the  other.  But  the  synopsis  covers  part  of 
the  action  by  saying,  "John  refused  the  bribe,''  whereas 
in  the  story  four  pages  are  devoted  to  relating  that  bit  of 
action,  with  conversation  and  by-play  to  enrich  it.  The 
same  distinction  is  illustrated  by  the  scenario  of  a  play; 
the  scenario  that  summarizes  the  entire  action  of  the  play 
may  fill  four  pages;  the  full-length  play  may  take  150 
pages. 


NARRATION  25 

The  distinction  is  mentioned  here  to  show  how  modern 
writers  get  all  the  essential  action  of  a  story  in  short  space 
at  the  same  time  taking  advantage  of  the  greater  interest 
in  detailed  full-length  narrative.  They  divide  the  action 
into  a  series  of  scenes  or  stages ;  they  then  select  three  or 
four  of  the  most  interesting  and  vital  scenes.  These  three 
or  four  scenes  they  narrate  in  detail,  at  full  length,  includ- 
ing practically  all  the  action  and  conversation  that  actually 
took  place.  Other  scenes  they  condense  into  synopsis  form. 
The  resulting  story  is  interesting  because  it  is  almost  en- 
tirely composed  of  dialogue  and  action. 

Impression — The  point  or  moral  of  a  narrative  is  an 
important  consideration.  The  journalistic  narrator,  be- 
cause he  is  dealing  with  real  life,  cannot  construct  action 
and  episodes  to  bring  out  a  moral,  as  the  fiction  writer  can. 
But  the  journalist  does  the  same  thing  by  putting  his  story 
together  so  as  to  carry  out  his  impression  of  its  meaning. 
Before  he  begins  to  write,  he  has  decided  what  the  story 
really  means,  what  great  truth  of  life  it  illustrates,  and 
he  unconsciously  builds  the  story  so  as  to  give  the  reader 
the  same  interpretation.  He  does  not  comment  or  preach ; 
he  simply  emphasizes  the  parts  of  the  story  that  create  the 
yeaning  he  sees  in  it.  In  doing  so  he  not  only  writes  a 
story  that  means  something  but  the  single  impression  it 
gives  ties  the  action  together. 

Interest — In  narrative  writing  interest  depends  upon 
many  things.  (1)  Perhaps  it  depends  most  on  the  amount 
of  real  living  action.  Some  writers  tell  a  story  in  such  a 
flat,  lifeless  way  that  it  sounds  like  an  exposition ;  another 
tells  the  story  in  a  way  that  thrills  and  moves.  The  dif- 
ference seems  to  depend  upon  the  amount  of  action,  life, 
and  vividness  that  goes  into  each  sentence,  clause,   and 


26  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

phrase.  And  since  action  is  told  by  verbs,  Jhe  real  sonrfifi 
^ofjividness  is  usually  in  the  verb^.  If  they  are  yiyid,  the 
story  is  vivid ;  if  they  are  lifeless,  the  story  is  fiat. 

(2)  The  means  of  coherence — the  way  in  which  facts 
are  tied  together — has  much  to  do  with  the  interest.  If" 
the  various  stages  are  simply  strung  along  in  a  series,  one 
after  the  other,  the  reader  does  not  get  their  relation.  If, 
however,  they  are  connected  with  relations  of  cause  and 
effect,  each  will  become  essential  and  interesting.  This 
does  not  mean  merely  a  connection  at  the  beginning  of  each 
scene.  It  means  a  logical  coherence  throughout  every  sen- 
tence and  clause.  The  chief  fault  in  narrations  written 
by  young  writers  is  that  the  connectives  which  tie  sentences 
together  are  usually  'Hhen,"  '^after  that,"  "thereupon,"  etc. 
— words  which  indicate  only  a  sequence  of  time.  The 
skilled  writer  ties  the  thought  together  with  relations  of 
cause  and  result.  He  does  not  use  ''so"  and  ''because," 
necessarily,  but  he  realizes  the  cause-and-effect  before  he 
begins  to  write  and  ties  action  together  by  sheer  logic  of 
his  thought. 

(3)  The  amount  of  full-length  action,  readable  descrip- 
tion, and  concrete  detail  worked  into  a  narrative  is  more 
responsible  than  anything  else  for  its  interest.  To  be 
interested  in  a  story,  we  must  be  able  to  visualize  it,  to  see 
the  action  just  as  if  it  were  on  the  stage  before  us.  For  us 
to  do  this,  the  writer  must  give  the  setting  and  detail  the 
movements  and  words  of  his  actors  so  that  we  can  see  and 
hear  them.  That  is  why  a  story  with  much  dialogue  looks 
interesting ;  the  reader,  just  by  seeing  the  quotation  marks, 
knows  that  the  actors  are  going  to  do  some  talking,  anj-^vay, 
even  if  they  do  not  move. 


NARRATION  27 

EXERCISES  III 
Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  find  a  good  narrative  in  the 
daily  newspaper  and  be  ready  to  discuss  it  in  class  on 
the  basis  of  the  above  suggestions.  Do  not  hesitate  to 
criticize  it;  many  newspaper  articles  are  hastily  written. 
Study  the  word  usage. 

Tuesday 

1.  Find  out  about  an  event  of  the  last  few  days,  an  accident 
or  other  unusual  event,  and  put  down  on  paper  a  list 
of  all  parts  of  the  story  that  you  know.  It  must  be  a 
true  story,  not  an  imaginary  one.  Make  an  outline  of 
the  stages  in  the  action  to  show  how  you  would  tell  the 
story.  Perhaps  gather  more  facts  on  an  incident  merely 
mentioned  in  the  newspaper. 

2.  In  class,  discuss  this  outline.  Also  make  a  list  of  ten 
events  that  have  come  to  your  attention  in  the  past  week 
and  would  make  interesting  narratives  if  properly  told. 

Wednesday 

1.  Select  some  larger  true  story  in  your  city — the  story  of 
a  person^s  career,  a  political  fight,  a  love  aSair — and 
list  the  stages  in  the  action.  Make  an  outline  of  it. 
(Your  father  or  other  older  person  may  perhaps  tell  you 
such  a  story.) 

2.  Choose  five  scenes  in  this  story  that  might  be  told  at 
full  length,  as  if  they  were  on  the  stage.  Determine 
whether  you  could  tell  the  entire  story  by  simply  re- 
lating these  five  scenes.  How  much  other  material  is 
needed  to  make  it  clear? 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Kinds  of  News 

While,  in  general,  we  may  define  news  as  *^'anything  timely 
that  interests  a  large  number  of  readers,"  we  find  a  different 
interpretation   in   various   newspapers.      No   newspaper   can 


28  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

print  each  day  everything  timely  that  might  interest  its 
readers;  it  lacks  the  space.  From  among  the  events  all  over 
the  world  reported  over  its  wires,  it  must  select  what  it  con- 
siders the  best  news — the  most  interesting.  On  this  selection 
depends  the  most  essential  differences  between  newspapers. 
Some  appeal  to  one  interest  and  some  to  another.  Some  try 
to  set  ns  to  thinking ;  some  try  to  arouse  our  emotions ;  some 
try  to  teach  us ;  some  aim  merely  to  amuse  us.  Certain  editors 
try  to  find  out  what  we  wish  to  read  and  to  supply  it,  what- 
ever it  may  be;  others  believe  that  not  everything  we  want 
is  good  for  us  and  omit  certain  kinds  of  news  as  unfit.  In 
the  kind  of  news  they  select  to  print  and  emphasize,  one  may 
see  on  the  front  pages  of  our  newspapers  personalities  as 
distinct  as  those  on  the  faces  of  human  beings.  To  know 
which  is  good  and  which  is  bad,  we  must  learn  to  judge  them. 
And  just  as  a  smear  of  dirt  on  a  person's  face  is  no  index 
of  his  character,  except  as  it  indicates  his  occupation  or  his 
cleanliness,  so  the  blackness  of  the  headlines  in  a  newspaper 
is  usually  a  superficial  indication;  perhaps  merely  an  aid  to 
the  newsboy  who  sells  the  paper.  The  real  character  is  down 
deep  in  the  selection  and  emphasis  of  news. 

1.  What  types  of  subjects  does  the  newspaper  consider  the 
best  news?  How  many  of  its  articles  are  worth  while? 
How  many  are  trivial? 

2.  To  what  extent  does  it  aim  to  be  educational? 

3.  What  entertaining  material  does  it  publish  ?  Is  it  vulgar 
or  does  it  encourage  good  taste? 

4.  Does  it  encourage  beneficial  or  harmful  pastimes? 

0.  Could  it  be  used  in  an  English  class  as  a  model  of 
writing  ? 

6.  To  what  extent  does  it  support  community  progress? 

7.  Is  it  for  thoughtful  readers  or  frivolous;  or  does  it  try 
to  reach  both? 


NARRATION  29 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  Add  to  the  list  of  student  organizations,  prepared  last 
week,  the  full  names  of  the  principal  officers  of  each 
organization.  Note  after  each  name  the  time  when  the 
officer  was  elected  and  when  his  term  expires.  Try  to 
fix  this  list  in  mind  and  later  file  it  away  for  reference. 

2.  In  class,  after  a  written  exercise  on  part  of  the  above, 
the  time  will  be  devoted  to  discussion  of  news  events 
of  the  week.  Each  student  should  be  able  to  discuss 
current  events  intelligently  and  give  their  background. 
Careless  reading  and  hazy  ideas  will  not  be  countenanced. 
One  must  Tcnow  things  exactly  if  he  is  to  write  about 
them. 


CHAPTER  IV 
BUILDING  A  NARRATIVE 

The  word  ^'building"  is  used  in  the  above  title  because 
the  task  before  us  is  a  matter  of  construction  quite  as  much 
as  a  matter  of  composition.  Many  writers  admit  that  they 
^^build''  expositions  and  descriptions,  but  insist  that  they 
''write"  narrations;  that  is,  they  intimate  that  they  tell  a 
story  just  as  it  comes  to  them.  Perhaps  that  is  why  so 
many  poor  stories  are  written.  To  succeed  in  narration, 
the  writer  must  build  his  narrative  out  of  separate  parts, 
arranged  after  a  definite  scheme,  and  the  only  real  differ- 
ence between  narration-building  and  exposition-building  is 
in  the  nature  of  the  parts. 

Gathering  Material. — As  our  interest  is  journalistic, 
rather  than  literary,  we  shall  write  only  true  stories  of 
actual  happenings.  We  shall  not  feel  at  liberty  to  imagine 
a  single  event  or  invent  a  single  incident.  Hence,  the 
gathering  of  material  is  the  first  step,  and  it  is  closely 
related  to  detective  work.  Actual  stories  of  real  life  are 
not  spread  out  before  us  in  their  entirety.  The  writer  is 
fortunate  if  one  incident  is  opened  up  to  him  in  full. 
Usually  he  has  at  first  only  a  peek  at  the  story  and  must 
hunt  for  clues  and  follow  every  thread  to  discover  the  other 
incidents.  This  tracing  out  and  piecing  together  must  be 
done  painstakingly,  for,  if  a  single  incident  is  overlooked, 
the  entire  aspect  of  the  story  may  be  changed.  The^ 
writer's  procedure  resembles  a  trial  in  court  because  a  trial 

30 


BUILDING  A  NARRATIVE  31 

is  the  piecing  together  of  a  story  to  determine  what  really 
happened  and  who  committed  the  crime;  often  the  final 
verdict  is  instantly  changed  by  the  discovery  in  the  last 
cross-examination  of  an  incident  not  known  before.  There- 
fore, the  writer  must  not  be  ready  to  judge  the  story  or  its 
characters  until  he  has  discovered  all  the  facts.  If  he  does, 
his  prejudice  and  hastily  formed  judgment  may  blind  him 
to  the  most  significant  incidents.  He  may  often  save  him- 
self from  stopping  his  investigations  too  soon  by  thinking 
over  every  thread  of  the  story  and  tracing  the  actions  of 
each  character  separately  from  beginning  to  end.  Since 
most  events  in  human  life  are  hitched  together  by  cause- 
and-effect  relations,  the  failure  to  discover  a  reason  for 
some  action  or  incident  in  the  story  will  often  lead  to  a 
search  for  the  cause  and  the  ultimate  finding  of  another 
thread.  The  one  admonition  to  follow  is  this:  ^'^ever 
begin  to  write  or  to  outline  the  story  until  you  are  reason- 
ably sure  that  you  have  all  the  facts.'' 

Organizing  Material — The  next  step  is  to  organize  the 
material.  This  is  a  difficult  task  because  there  is  so  much 
material,  and  it  is  hard  to  know  what  is  essential.  For 
most  writers  the  best  method  is  to  work  out  the  story  on 
paper  just  as  if  one  were  solving  a  puzzle.  One  may  jot 
down  in  a  row  all  the  incidents  in  the  story,  or  one  may  jot 
down  in  parallel  columns  the  incidents  in  which  each  actor 
plays  a  part.  Such  a  list  will  insure  the  inclusion  of  all 
the  incidents.  Or  the  action  may  be  pictured  graphically 
by  a  series  of  lines,  each  representing  an  actor,  with  inter- 
sections to  indicate  the  points  where  the  various  characters 
meet  in  the  same  incident.  It  may  be  well  to  tell  the  story 
to^ome  one,  watching  for  the  incidents  that  seem  to  inter- 
est him  most  and  trying  to  discover  what  he  does  not  under- 


32  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

stand.  After  this  list,  or  diagram,  has  been  made,  the 
writer  must  then  decide  what  parts  are  essential  and  really 
needed  for  a  clear  understanding  of  the  story. 

Outlining  the  Story — If  one  were  writing  a  summary 
of  the  story,  like  the  synopsis  at  the  head  of  an  installment 
of  a  serial  novel,  he  would  simply  narrate  the  events  indi- 
cated in  his  outline.  But  this  would  not  make  a  very 
interesting  narrative.  Only  concrete  action  and  dialogue 
make  a  narrative  interesting,  and  the  writer  must  tell  some 
parts  of  the  story  full-length — ^that  is,  with  all  the  action 
and  dialogue  that  took  place.  But  unless  one  is  writing  a 
novel,  it  is  impossible  to  tell  the  entire  story  full-length, 
and  in  a  short  narrative  one  must  select  'parts  of  it  to  tell 
in  full.  The  easiest  way  to  do  this  is  to  divide  the  nar- 
rative into  scenes — the  two,  or  four  or  five  scenes  in  which 
most  of  the  significant  action  took  place.  If  these  scenes 
are  told  in  full,  with  action  and  dialogue,  not  much  more  is 
needed  to  make  the  narrative  complete.  This  idea  will  be 
clearer  if  the  writer  imagines  that  he  is  writing  a  play,  for 
in  that  case  the  entire  action  must  be  presented  in  four  or 
^YQi  scenes.  To  outline  the  narrative,  therefore,  select 
several  scenes  at  the  major  points  on  the  outline  to  be 
written  out  full-length;  intermediate  action  will  be  sum- 
marized in  synopsis  form,  or  by  the  dialogue  in  the  major 
scenes. 

Where  and  How  to  Begin — It  is  not  always  wise  to  tell 
the  story  in  chronological  order.  As  any  narrative  is  only 
a  section  of  life  lifted  out  of  a  continuous  cycle — just  a  few 
hours  out  of  the  lifetime  of  the  various  characters — it 
really  has  no  definite  beginning  or  end.  The  characters 
lived  before  the  story  and  most  of  them  will  probably  live 
afterward.      Supposing  that  the  actual  narrative  begins 


BUILDING   A  NARRATIVE  33 

at  2  o'clock  on  October  26,  what  is  to  be  done  with  the 
many  years  preceding  that  exact  moment  ?  The  past  is  not 
really  a  part  of  the  story  and  yet  it  is  necessary  to  an 
understanding  of  the  story.  Many  a  narrative,  in  fact, 
hinges  more  on  the  past  than  on  the  incidents  in  it.  To 
present  the  background,  therefore,  there  is  always  an  ^'ex- 
position of  the  past''  to  be  taken  care  of  and  also  the  prob- 
lem of  deciding  where  the  narrative  shall  take  up  the  cycle 
of  the  characters'  lives.  It  is  certain  that  it  would  hardly 
be  wise  to  begin  earlier  than  the  first  scene  indicated  on  the 
outline.  Whatever  went  before  that  can  best  be  worked  in 
as  explanation.  Even  so,  if  the  early  part  is  to  contain 
significant  action,  it  is  not  alw^ays  best  to  begin  even  with 
the  first  scene.  Sometimes  writers  begin  with  the  last 
scene  and  relate  earlier  scenes  later — like  a  "cut-in"  in  a 
moving  picture  drama.  Or  they  may  begin  in  the  middle, 
then  go  back  to  the  beginning,  and  finally  reach  the  end. 
It  all  depends  upon  the  particular  narrative.  This  much 
is  true,  however :  the  writer  should  not  write  a  word  of  his 
etory  until  he  has  made  a  definite  outline  of  its  entire 
course. 

In  other  days  writers  of  narrative  often  began  with 
a  sketch  of  the  past — an  exposition  of  what  went  before. 
Some  writers  do  so  now,  although  they  are  running  the 
risk  of  making  the  beginning  uninteresting.  Modern 
writers  usually  plunge  directly  into  one  of  the  scenes. 
They  begin  with  action,  get  the  story  under  way,  and  give 
the  exposition  later.  A  remark  made  by  a  character  or  a 
bit  of  action  is  often  used  as  a  start-off.  Or  the  beginning 
may  be  a  description  of  the  scene.  The  method  is  some- 
w^hat  unnatural  and  therefore  must  be  done  with  great 
skill.     How^ever  it  is  done,  it  is  well  to  plunge  into  one  of 


34  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

the  full-length  scenes  first,  simply  to  get  action  into  the 
beginning. 

How  to  Make  a  Narrative  Interesting. — There  are,  of 
conrse,  many  ways  of  making  a  narrative  interesting. 
Some  of  them  are  so  subtle  that  they  cannot  be  described ; 
they  are  simply  evidence  of  the  ability  of  the  ''natural-born 
story  teller.''  Some,  however,  can  be  imitated.  One,  for 
example,  is  the  method  of  handling  descriptive  and  exposi- 
tory matter.  One  writer  stops  his  story  when  he  has  some- 
thing to  explain ;  another  works  in  the  explanation  without 
slowing  up  the  action.  The  second  is  of  course  more 
effective,  but  how  is  it  done  ?  It  is  a  question  of  writing 
no  sentence  that  does  not  contain  action;  by  making  each 
sentence  a  j)ai-t  of  the  narrative.  Once  a  sentence  appears 
that  merely  explains,  the  action  hesitates.  But  how  can 
explanation  be  injected  if  no  sentences  are  devoted  to  it  ? 
The  answer  is  that  it  must  be  subordinated  grammatically 
just  as  it  is  subordinated  in  interest.  While  the  principal 
verbs  of  the  sentences  are  relating  action,  subordinate 
clauses,  phrases,  adjectives,  and  adverbs  bring  in  the  ex- 
planation. Thus,  while  the  reader  looks  directly  at  the 
action,  the  background  steals  into  his  eyes  without  his 
knowing  it.  The  writer  does  this  by  knowing  his  story 
thoroughly  and  telling  it  straightforwardly,  injecting  in- 
cidentally whatever  explanations  are  needed  to  make  each 
bit  of  action  clear. 

Point  of  View — Another  way  to  make  a  narrative  inter- 
esting is  to  tell  it  from  a  definite  point  of  view.  Uncon- 
sciously readers  wish  to  have  the  feeling  that  they  are 
watching  the  action.  Since  one  cannot  be  in  a  number  of 
places  at  once,  he  finds  it  difiicult  to  imagine  himself  in 
several  places  as  he  reads.     He  is  more  interested  if  the 


BUILDING  A  NARRATIVE  35 

writer  allows  him  to  see  where  he  is.  This  can  be  done  by 
the  use  of  a  definite  point  of  view.  Perhaps  it  is  the  point 
of  view  of  a  witness  or  of  a  character  in  the  story.  The 
prime  necessity  is  that  the  writer  shall  determine  in  ad- 
vance what  the  point  of  view  is  to  be — through  whose  eyes 
the  story  is  to  be  seen — and  keep  that  point  of  view 
throughout. 

Characters. — To  make  the  characters  living  and  real  is 
another  device.  Readers  are  only  mildly  interested  in  ^'a, 
man,"  but  if  it  is  a  certain  individual  whom  they  can  see, 
they  will  be  interested  in  watching  him.  This  does  not 
mean  that  one  must  stop  and  describe  each  character  with 
a  biographical  sketch  and  Bertillon  measurements.  There 
is  an  easier  way.  If  the  writer  will  but  get  acquainted 
with  his  characters  before  he  begins  to  write  so  that  he 
knows  them  thoroughly,  their  words  and  actions  will  be  so 
typical  that  they  will  be  real  and  live  in  the  story.  A  good 
method  is  to  write  biographical  sketches  and  descriptions 
of  the  characters  before  3'ou  begin  the  narrative.  Throw 
away  the  sketches,  of  course,  but  the  preparation  will  give 
you  a  picture  of  the  characters. 

Dialogue.— Actual  conversation  is  almost  absolutely 
necessary  in  narrative.  It  is  not  only  concrete  but  it 
^^looks"  interesting.  Three  words  spoken  by  a  character 
will  often  tell  more  of  the  story  than  a  page  of  laborious 
explanation.  But  this  dialogue  must  be  true  to  life.  The 
characters  must  not  only  say  the  things  that  are  needed  to 
make  the  story  progress,  but  they  must  talk  in  their  own 
characteristic  ways.  If  a  la^\wer  of  dignified  mien  talks  in 
street  slang  or  a  street  urchin  quotes  Latin,  the  unreality 
of  the  dialog-ue  makes  the  reader  laugh  and  forget  the 
story. 


36  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Knowing  What  to  Tell.— But,  after  all,  the  chief  thing 
in  a  narrative  is  to  know  just  how  much  to  tell  and  how 
much  to  omit.  Unless  something  is  left  to  the  reader's 
imagination,  he  is  not  interested.  One  way  to  judge  this 
is  by  ''trying  out"  the  narrative  on  someone  who  will  point 
out  the  parts  that  are  unnecessary  or  not  clear.  Or  the 
writer  may  take  it  for  granted  that  he  has  told  too  much 
and  condense  the  story  any^vay.  If,  after  it  has  been  com- 
pleted, it  is  4,000  words  long,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  it  will 
be  improved  by  being  condensed  to  2,000.  Such  a  process 
will  not  only  eliminate  repetitions,  but  will  also  do  away 
with  all  sentences  that  contain  no  action. 

EXERCISES  IV 
Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  select  a  narrative  from  a 
newspaper  Sunday  magazine  or  a  current  magazine  and 
outline  a  criticism  of  it  to  be  delivered  orally  in  class. 

Tuesday 

1.  Outline  a  narrative  of  one  of  the  stories  worked  out  last 
Wednesday.  Choose  several  scenes  to  be  told  in  full  and 
decide  which  scene  should  open  the  narrative.  Make  a 
list  of  possible  points  of  view  from  which  the  narrative 
might  be  told. 

2.  In  class,  give  orally  a  description  and  biographical  sketch 
of  each  of  the  important  characters  in  your  narrative 
and  a  brief  synopsis  of  the  story's  background — the  past 
events  that  must  be  worked  in  to  make  the  narrative 
clear. 

Wednesday 

1.  Put  the  sketches  and  descriptions  away  and  begin  writ- 
ing the  story.  Take  up  each  scene  alone  and  write  it 
as  a  separate  piece  of  composition.  Then  put  the  various 
scenes  together  in  proper  order  and  write  whatever  sum- 


BUILDING  A   NARRATIVE  37 

mary,  if  any,  is  needed  to  tie  them  together.  Go  over 
the  story  and  cross  out  enough  unnecessary  parts  to 
reduce  its  length  by  half.  (If  there  is  not  enough  time 
to  write  the  entire  story,  write  one  scene — the  first  or 
the  climax.) 
2.  In  class,  study  the  beginnings  of  the  various  stories. 
Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

The  Writing  Staff 

Few  readers  have  any  definite  idea  of  the  tremendous 
amount  of  writing  that  goes  into  a  newspaper  or  of  the 
elaborate  system  required  to  handle  it.  They  do  not  remem- 
ber that  in  a  newspaper,  prepared  completely  and  issued 
once  each  24  hours,  there  may  be  enough  reading  matter  to 
fill  several  books.  The  great  variety  requires  a  staff  organized 
on  the  basis  of  the  kinds  of  things  printed,  usually  somewhat 
as  follows:  All  reading  matter  outside  the  editorial  page  is 
under  the  direction  of  a  managing  editor,  and  each  special 
part  is  directed  by  subordinate  editors.  The  city  editor,  for 
instance,  is  responsible  for  the  gathering  and  writing  of  all 
news  of  the  home  city,  and  he  is  assisted  by  a  number  of 
reporters,  as  well  as  a  group  of  copy  readers  who  correct.  Of 
edit,  the  "copy"  written  by  reporters,  as  well  as  write  head- 
lines for  it.  Perhaps  there  are  also  rewrite  men  to  handle 
stories  telephoned  by  reporters.  All  news  matter  that  comes 
from  other  cities  (usually  designated  by  a  dateline)  is 
handled  by  a  telegraph  editor  who  directs  the  correspondents 
in  other  cities  and  selects  from  the  material  supplied  by  press 
associations.  Besides  these  two  definite  ^^city"  and  "tele- 
graph" staffs,  the  managing  editor  employs  a  number  of 
special  department  editors  to  prepare  society,  sports,  woman's 
page,  markets,  and  other  special  branches.  He  also  purchases 
special  articles  and  features  from  free-lance  writers  or  syn- 
dicates.    While  his   "news"  staff  prepares  the  news  pages. 


38  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

anotlier  ^'editorial"  staff,  under  an  *^editor-in-chief/'  writes 
the  editorials  and  gathers  the  material  for  the  editorial  page. 

1.  Notice  the  amount  of  space  filled  by  each  of  the  workers 
mentioned.     Measure  it  up  by  the  column-inch. 

2.  "What  newsgathering  agencies  assist  the  staff,  as  evi- 
denced in  the  paper? 

3.  Estimate  the  number  of  words  in  the  newspaper,  exclu- 
sive of  advertising.  Compare  it  with  the  number  of 
words  in  a  novel. 

4.  Estimate  the  number  of  individual  letters  in  the  news- 
paper, outside  of  advertising.  If  it  takes  a  printer  two 
minutes  to  set  by  hand  a  single  line  of  type,  how  long 
would  it  take  him  to  set  up  the  reading  matter  of  on^ 
issue  ? 

5.  How  many  articles  originating  in  the  home  city  and 
how  many  from  outside  are  printed  in  one  issue  ?  How 
many  men  do  you  think  would  be  needed  to  write  them  ? 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  full  names  of  all  class  officers  in 
school,  together  with  time  and  manner  of  election  and 
probable  end  of  term.  After  trying  to  memorize  the 
list,  file  it  away  for  use  in  some  future  article. 

2.  In  class,  reproduce  above  list  from  memory.  Current 
events.  Discuss  also  the  similarity  between  the  organ- 
ization of  school  classes  and  the  various  kinds  of 
democratic  government  in  various  nations. 


CHAPTEK  V 
PARAGRAPHS 

Paragraphing  is  an  important  matter  in  journalistic 
writing,  perhaps  more  important  than  in  other  kinds  of 
writing,  as  we  found  in  our  writing  of  narratives.  The 
j)urpose  of  paragraphs  in  any  writing  is  to  break  up  an 
article  into  its  logical  divisions  so  that  the  structure  and 
thought  wall  be  easy  to  grasp.  If  articles  were  not  divided 
into  paragraphs,  only  the  closest  reading  would  divulge  the 
steps  by  which  the  idea  is  built  up ;  lapse  of  attention  for 
a  moment  would  drop  the  thread.  In  journalistic  writing 
such  a  physical  indication  of  steps  and  divisions  is  even 
more  necessary  than  in  other  kinds  of  writing. 

But  before  an  article  can  be  divided  into  paragraphs  on 
this  basis,  its  content  must  be  divided  logically  into  parts 
and  steps.  There  is  the  obstacle.  Bad  paragraphing 
usually  results  from  lack  of  arrangement  of  material.  A 
well-arranged  article  falls  into  paragraphs  so  naturally  that 
the  writer  need  not  give  the  matter  a  thought ;  ill-arranged 
material  cannot  be  paragraphed  logically.  Evidently, 
therefore,  before  attacking  the  paragraph  problem,  we 
must  make  a  study  of  the  planning  and  arrangement  of 
the  paragraph. 

Planning. — The  first  step  in  any  writing,  no  matter  of 
what  kind,  must  be  a  preliminary  plan  or  outline  of  the 
material,  or  else  the  article  will  be  formless,  muddled,  and 
meaningless.     The  importance  of  this  is  emphasized  here 

39 


40  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

because  many  persons  think  that,  when  they  undertake 
journalistic  writing,  they  can  bid  farewell  to  the  trouble- 
some outline.  On  the  contrary !  No  journalistic  writing 
that  is  of  any  account  is  done  without  a  preliminary  plan. 
The  writer  may  not  always  place  the  outline  on  paper,  but 
he  works  out  in  his  mind.  And  the  beginner  had  best  place 
it  on  paper  to  be  sure  that  none  of  it  gets  away. 

The  making  of  an  outline  is  simple  if  considered  in  the 
proper  light.  No  detailed  formula  need  be  followed.  The 
problem  is  simply  one  of  marshaling  the  facts  and  details 
that  make  up  an  article.  In  marshaling  them,  the  writer 
aims  both  to  make  their  relations  clear  and  to  emphasize 
the  most  important  points. 

The  first  step  is  to  separate  the  material  into  its  main 
divisions — to  make  a  list  of  the  main  subjects  to  be  dis- 
cussed. Then,  one  by  one,  these  main  divisions  should 
be  subdivided  into  their  sub-parts;  on  the  outline  this 
appears  as  a  list  of  subheads  under  each  of  the  main  heads. 
Perhaps  some  of  these  subdivisions  will  need  to  be  divided 
into  their  subdivisions.  The  finished  outline  is  merely  a 
list  of  divisions,  subdivisions,  and  sub-subdivisions,  etc., 
set  down  on  paper  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  relations 
clear.  In  some  kinds  of  articles  each  item  will  be  merely 
a  word ;  in  others  each  item  w^ill  be  a  sentence. 

Sample  Outline. — For  example,  the  following  is  an  out- 
line of  an  article  that  analyzes  the  enrollment  of  a  state 
university  with  reference  to  localities  from  w^hich  students 
come.  The  lettering  and  numbering  simply  assist  in 
making  relations  clear: 

A.  Introduction 

1.  Fewer  foreign  students 

2.  More  students  from  other  states 


PARAGRAPHS  41 

B.  Foreign  students 

1.  Total  is  27 — only  one  from  warring  nations  of  Europe 

2.  Orient  sends  largest  number 

{a)   China  sends  12 
{h)   Japan,  2 
(c)   India,  2 

3.  Other  parts  of  this  continent  represented 

{a)   Canada  sends  4 
(&)   South  America,  1 
(c)   Mexico,  1 

4.  Europe  sends  5 

{a)   England,  1 
(&)   Spain,  2 
{c)   Sweden,  2 

5.  Comparison  with  last  year 

{a)  Total  was  42 

(&)   There  were  more  from  Europe 

C.  Other  American  states  represented 

1.  All  except  three;  they  send  909  students 

2.  Middle  West  leads  with  724 

{a)   Indiana  is  first  with  327 

(5)  Illinois  is  second  with  138 
(c)   Other  Middle  Western  states 

3.  Far  West  sends  98 

{a)   California  is  first  with  42 

(6)  Other  far  western  states  represented 

4.  East  sends  67 

{a)   New  York  leads  with  43 

(&)   Other  eastern  states  represented 

5.  South  sends  20 

{a)   Kentucky  is  first  with  14 

(b)  Other  southern  states  represented 

D.  Residents  of  the  home  state 

1.  All  counties  except  three  are  represented 

2.  Leading  counties 

{a)   Eichmond  sends  783 
(&)   Fairview  sends  462 

(c)  Bryant  sends  79 


42  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

3.  Counties  least  represented 

(a)   Grove,  2;  Holly,  1;  Forest,  1 

4.  Sections  of  state 

(a)   South  sends  most 

(&)  Northwest  is  second 

(c)   Very  few  from  northeast 

The  above  is  an  outline  of  an  expository  article.  As  an 
example  of  the  arrangement  of  material  for  a  narrative, 
we  may  outline  a  story  that  appears  in  Chapter  XV,  as 
follows : 

A.  Scene  at  beginning  of  action 

1.  Apartment  house  almost  empty 

2.  List  of  tenants  at  home 

B.  Beginning  of  action 

1.  Baby's  cr3dng  awakens  Mrs.  Littleton 

2.  Two  try  to  escape;  awaken  Sterling,  the  roomer 

3.  Woman  overcome  by  smoke;  husband  tries  to  revive 

her 

C.  Quick  action  of  roomer 

1.  Finds  rear  hall  in  flames 

2.  Fires  revolver  through  window  to  call  help 

D.  Attempt  to  escape 

1.  Littletons  are  overcome  and  fail 

2.  Sterling  reaches  street  and  saves  baby 

E.  Help  arrives 

1.  Neighbor  awakened  by  shots ;  calls  firemen 

2.  Other  neighbors  keep  Sterling  from  rushing  back 

F.  Rescue  completed  by  firemen 

1.  Fire  companies  arrive  and  begin  work 

2.  Two  firemen  rescue  Littletons 

G.  Summary  of  results 

1.  Total  loss,  $30,000 ;  caused  by  spontaneous  combustion 

Once  the  outline  is  made,  paragraphing  takes  care  of 
itself.     The  outlining  has  divided  the  material  into  units, 


PARAGRAPHS  43 

and  each  block  becomes  a  paragraph.  If  the  article  is  short 
and  simple,  each  main  division  (A^  B,  C,  D,  above)  may 
make  a  paragraph.  Each  of  the  subdivisions  (1,  2,  3,  4) 
will  then  be  a  sentence.  If  the  article  is  long  and  detailed, 
the  numbered  subdivisions  may  be  the  basis  of  paragraph- 
ing. 

Unity. — Such  an  arrangement  is  the  basis  of  unity. 
Each  paragraph,  like  each  sentence,  becomes  a  unit,  or 
block,  which  is  concerned  with  a  single  phase  of  the  sub- 
ject. If  the  material  is  well  arranged,  these  units  will  be 
almost  equal  in  size  and  the  paragraphs  will  be  of  similar 
lengths.  In  journalistic  writing  this  blocking  out  often 
^ims  to  make  each  paragraph  so  self-sufficient  that  the 
paragraphs  may  be  shifted  about  to  bring  certain  subjects 
nearer  the  beginning  and  to  alter  the  emphasis.  Whether 
or  not  such  is  the  purpose,  no  writing  is  good  unless  it  is 
carefully  blocked  out;  the  hit-or-miss,  conglomerate  ar- 
rangement seen  in  some  writing  is  a  sign  of  carelessness. 

Length. — Paragraphs  in  journalistic  writing  are  usually 
shorter  than  paragraphs  in  other  kinds  of  writing.  To 
prove  this,  one  need  only  count  the  words  in  an  ordinary 
literary  paragraph  and  in  a  newspaper  paragraph.  It  will 
be  found  that  the  literary  paragraph  averages  more  than 
150  words  and  is  often  250  words  long.  In  newspapers  the 
average  length  is  about  75  words.  There  are  two  reasons 
for  this:  (1)  While  the  journalist  writes  he  is  continually 
thinking  of  the  appearance  of  his  writing  in  print  and 
wishes  to  give  it  an  interesting  "look."  Short  paragraphgt 
"look"  more  interesting  because  they  afford  more  breaks 
in  the  solid  type  matter.  (2)  The  journalist  is  usually 
writing  for  a  publication  the  columns  of  which  are  very 
narrow,  and  the  narro^vness  causes  his  short  paragraphs  to 


44  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

be  stretched  out  and  to  appear  much  longer  than  they  really 
are. 

Shorter  paragraphs  in  journalistic  writing  should  be 
attained,  not  by  the  haphazard  method  of  simply  beginning 
a  new  paragraph  more  often,  but  by  such  a  systematic 
method  as  that  described  above.  The  only  difference  is 
that  smaller  units  are  selected. 

Emphasis — The  beginning  and  end  of  a  paragraph  are 
its  most  emphatic  parts.  Moreover,  in  journalistic  writing, 
the  beginning  is  considered  more  emphatic  than  the  end. 
But  what  is  the  most  important  sentence  or  part  in  the 
paragraph  ?  Fortunately  this  is  easy  to  decide,  for  in 
every  well-written  paragraph  there  is  always  one  sentence, 
known  as  the  topic-sentence,  which  sums  up  the  content  of 
the  paragraph.  This  topic-sentence  is  the  one  to  be  empha- 
sized. Literary  writers  and  essayists  lead  up  to  the  topic- 
sentence  and  place  it  at  the  end.  Journalists  usually  place 
it  at  the  beginning  and  devote  the  rest  of  the  paragraph  to 
explaining  it,  since  it  is  always  the  journalist's  custom  to 
begin  with  the  best  thing  he  has  to  say  and  to  give  details 
later. 

Another  idea  is  added  to  this  in  journalistic  writing. 
Since  this  writing  aims  at  an  attractive  ^^look"  in  type,  the 
journalist  usually  tries  to  say  something  of  import  in  the 
first  few  words  of  the  paragraph.  The  indention  of  the 
paragraph  makes  the  first  line  stand  out  and  catch  the 
reader's  eye.  The  writer  takes  advantage  of  this  by  placing 
in  this  first  line  a  statement  or  group  of  words  that  will 
hold  the  eye  and  interest  the  reader  in  delving  into  the 
paragraph. 


PARAGRAPHS  45 

EXERCISES  V 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  select  a  long,  involved  article 
.     in  a  current  newspaper  and  prepare  a  careful  outline  of 
it.     Can  you  suggest  improvements  in  the  author's  out- 
line?   What  is  the  basis  of  his  paragraphing? 

Tuesday 

1.  Make  a  careful  outline  of  material  for  an  article  on  one 
of  the  following  subjects : 

(a)  Analysis  of  the  enrollment  in  the  school,  as  regards 
classes,  sex,  age,  courses  of  study,  nationalities,  etc. 

(b)  Analysis  of  the  business  of  the  city,  as  regards 
number  of  merchants,  lawyers,  doctors,  dentists, 
teachers,  etc.  (See  tables  in  city  or  telephone 
directory. ) 

(c)  An  article  on  the  growth  of  the  school  during  the 

past  ten  years  in  size  of  student  body  and  teaching 
staff. 

(d)  A  narrative  of  your  most  interesting  vacation  trip. 

Wednesday 

1.  Write  an  article  on  the  basis  of  the  outline  prepared 
yesterday,  paragraphing  after  the  logical  system  sug- 
gested. In  class,  discuss  the  paragraphing  method  and 
its  success. 

Thursday  ISTewspaper  Study 

The  Mechanical  Force 

Instead  of  speaking  of  a  newspaper  establishment  as  an 
^^office,"  we  should  call  it  a  ^'factory"  for  it  usually  contains 
as  many  machines  and  workmen  as  a  fair-sized  plant,  all 
engaged  in  manufacturing  thousands  of  newspapers  daily. 
To  set  the  type  the  newspaper  has  from  two  to  fifty  linotype 
machines,  each  of  which  costs  perhaps  $3,500  and  must  have 
a  skilled  operator.     Though  these  machines  set  most  of  the 


46  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

type,  the  plant  must  also  employ  many  printers  to  set  adver- 
tisements and  to  make  up  pages.  These  constitute  the  com- 
posing room.  After  the  pages  of  type  and  linotype  slugs  are 
made  up,  they  must  be  reproduced  in  curved  stereotype  plates 
by  another  force  of  men  working  with  costly  machines.  Then 
these  plates  are  clamped  on  the  rolls  of  huge  presses,  as  large 
and  costly  as  railway  locomotives,  which  devour  rolls  of  paper 
and  turn  out  thousands  of  finished  newspapers — printed,  cut, 
folded,  and  counted.  Some  metropolitan  plants  also  have 
engraving  shops  to  make  pictures,  rotogra^Tlre  and  color 
presses  for  special  supplements,  mailing  and  addressing 
machines,  and  scores  of  automobiles  for  delivery.  The  ma- 
chinery in  a  small  city  newspaper  may  be  worth  from  $50,000 
to  $100,000;  in  a  metropolitan  newspaper  it  may  amount  to 
millions.  The  mechanical  workers  employed  are  more  numer- 
ous and  more  highly  paid  than  the  editorial  workers.  This 
means  capitalization,  careful  business  methods,  and  dividends, 
as  in  any  other  factory.  x\nd  the  2  or  3  cents  that  you  pay 
for  a  newspaper  does  not  pay  for  the  unprinted  white  paper 
in  it. 

1.  Notice  the  various  kinds  of  lines  and  symbols  used  on 
the  front  page  of  a  newspaper,  remembering  that  a  piece 

of  metal  is  required  for  each. 

2.  Is  your  newspaper  extensively  illustrated?  Are  the  pic- 
tures half-tones  or  line  engravings?  (See  Part  II, 
Chapter  11.) 

3.  Are  there  many  typographical  errors?  How  many  per 
column  ? 

4.  How  many  copies  are  sold  each  day  ?  Could  you  estimate 
the  number  of  feet  of  a  roll  of  paper  required  for  the 
issue  each  day?     (The  roll  is  two  pages  wide.) 

5.  How  many  editions  does  the  newspaper  publish  daily? 

6.  A  Saturday  trip  to  a  local  newspaper  plant  will  aid 
your  understanding  of  the  mechanical  problems. 


PARAGRAPHS  47 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  members  and  officers  of  the  board, 
trustees,  or  regents  that  govern  the  school.  How  and 
when  are  they  elected  or  appointed  and  for  what  term? 
How  long  has  each  of  the  present  members  been  on  the 
board,  and  when  will  his  term  end?  What  are  the 
board's  powers  and  duties  ?  Where  does  the  money  come 
from?  How  is  it  appropriated,  and  how  much  is  spent 
each  year?  It  is  likely  that  the  board  issues  an  annual 
report  which  contains  these  facts.  Try  to  fix  them  in 
mind  and  file  them  away. 

2.  In  class,  memory  test  and  current  events.  Discuss  also 
which  of  these  names  has  appeared  in  the  newspapers 
recently  and  in  what  connection.  Are  any  school  or 
college  problems  now  in  the  public  eye  ? 


CHAPTER  VI 
NARRATIVES  WITH  A  PURPOSE 

We  are  returning  to  narrative  writing,  as  we  approach 
the  special  types  of  newspaper  articles,  because  the  nar- 
ratives that  we  wrote  before  were  not  precisely  journalistic 
in  all  respects.  They  were  rather  the  literary  type  of 
narrative  in  that  they  were  told  in  the  natural  chrono- 
logical sequence  of  events.  Xow  we  are  ready  to  build 
upon  this  j^ractice  by  selecting  from  among  the  many 
methods  of  narration  those  that  are  most  often  seen  in  the 
newspapers. 

Furthermore,  our  narratives  were  not  timely  or  newsy. 
If  a  narrative  is  to  be  of  value  to  a  newspaper,  it  must 
itself  contain  timely  news  or  it  must  have  a  direct  relation 
to  news.  However  interesting  a  story  may  be  in  other 
respects,  it' is  of  little  use  to  a  newspaper  unless  it  concerns 
an  event  that  happened  today  or  yesterday,  or  is  being 
talked  about  today.  Timeliness  bars  out  many  of  the 
stories  we  have  written,  for  they  happened  too  long  ago  to 
be  news  today. 

Once  one  has  this  idea  of  newspaper  writing — and  of  all 
journalistic  writing,  for  that  matter — he  is  ready  to  write 
narratives  with  a  journalistic  purpose.  Pure  news  is 
always  an  event  of  today — timeliness  makes  it  journalistic 
material — and  events  of  other  times  are  not  news  or  jour- 
nalistic material  unless  they  can  be  told  in  connection  with 
an  event  of  today;  that  is,  '^hitched  to''  today's  news. 

48 


NARRATIVES  WITH  A  PURPOSE  49 

When  an  ocean  liner  sinks,  for  instance,  newspaper 
writers  do  not  stop  with  the  news  of  the  event,  the  story  of 
the  catastrophe  alone.  Depending  upon  the  interest  that 
the  catastrophe  has  aroused,  they  write  articles  on  the 
history  of  the  vessel,  other  similar  sea  disasters,  legislation 
relating  to  shi23ping,  the  captain's  biograj)hy,  personalities 
about  the  passengers,  and  a  score  of  other  ''ends"  more  or 
less  directly  related  to  the  event.  Not  one  of  their  articles 
is  really  news  except  as  it  is  related  to  the  event,  and  not 
one  was  of  journalistic  use  yesterday  or  will  be  worth 
printing  day  after  tomorrow.  A  scrutiny  of  any  news- 
paper's columns  will  disclose  a  vast  amount  of  such  ma- 
terial which  is  simply  "hitched  up"  to  the  news.  This  is 
called  "feature  material." 

One  kind  of  feature  material  is  the  short  narrative  that 
is  commonly  called  the  "human  interest  story."  Some- 
times it  is  newsy  in  that  it  tells  of  an  event  that  happened 
today ;  again  it  is  newsy  in  that  it  is  related  to  an  event 
of  today.  But  it  does  not  fulfill  the  requirements  of  pure 
news  because  the  information  in  it  is  not  significant.  It 
is  worth  printing  because  it  arouses  a  laugh,  a  smile,  or  a 
bit  of  sympathy.  The  journalist's  confession  that  it  is  not 
really  news  is  indicated  in  the  way  he  writes  it ;  he  does 
not  cast  it  into  the  more  or  less  conventional  form  in  which 
he  presents  significant  news.  We  shall  try  writing  this 
kind  of  story  first,  because  it  affords  excellent  practice  in 
narration  and  will  prepare  us  for  writing  more  significant 
narratives  later. 

Human  Interest  Stories — The  distinctive  character  of  a 
human  interest  story  depends  upon  its  purpose,  its  appeal. 
It  does  not  present  news ;  that  is,  it  does  not  try  to  tell  the 
reader  about  some  current  event  of  which  he  should  know. 


50  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

It  tries  simply  to  tell  a  more  or  less  timely  story  to  amuse 
him  or  to  appeal  to  his  sympathy  or  humor.  If  a  blind 
beggar's  dog,  for  instance,  so  far  forgets  his  duty  as  to  run 
off  and  play  with  other  dogs  in  the  courthouse  yard,  instead 
of  leading  his  master  home,  there  is  no  particular  signifi- 
cance in  the  event  to  make  it  news.  But  if  it  happened 
today  and  can  be  told  in  such  a  way  as  to  amuse  the  reader, 
it  is  worth  printing.  It  might  be  w^orth  even  more  if  it  were 
told  in  such  a  way  as  to  arouse  sympathy  for  the  poor 
blind  beggar  so  that  someone  would  show  him  how  to  earn 
a  living.  Even  though  it  happened  a  year  ago,  it  might 
be  worth  printing  today,  if  it  could  be  related  to  something 
the  public  is  talking  about — a  home  for  imfortunates,  per- 
haps.   But  it  is  not  news ;  it  is  a  human  interest  story. 

That  is  why  human  interest  stories  are  classed  here  as 
"narratives  with  a  purpose."  Their  purpose  is  to  use  some 
of  the  little  events  in  life  to  arouse  a  bit  of  human  emotion 
in  the  reader,  to  break  up  the  monotony  of  serious  wi-iting 
on  important  events.  They  touch  the  heart  because  they 
are  human  and  deal  with  events  that  arouse  the  reader's 
imagination.  What  the  appeal  will  be  depends  upon  the 
writer.  One  writer  might  tell  the  story  of  the  blind  man's 
dog  in  such  a  way  as  to  set  the  town  laughing;  another 
might  bring  a  lump  to  the  reader's  throat ;  another  might 
arouse  the  fighting  instinct  and  lead  his  readers  to  des- 
perate deeds.  The  writer  must  decide  in  advance  to  what 
emotion  he  wishes  to  appeal. 

But  before  we  try  to  write  human  interest  stories,  we 
must  study  some  of  them  to  see  what  their  subject  matter 
is  and  how  they  are  written.  The  best  place  to  study  them 
is  in  a  large  city  newspaper,  but  for  convenience  a  few  are 
printed  here,  classified  in  a  general  way. 


NARRATIVES  WITH  A  PURPOSE 


51 


Commonplace  Incidents — The  subject  matter  of  this 
story  is  just  an  everyday  incident  in  which  the  reporter 
saw  some  human  interest.  If  you  strip  away  all  except  the 
event  itself — as  the  writer  would  do  in  treating  it  as  news 
— ^you  will  find  that  it  amounts  to  little : 

Two  English  themes,  slightly  smoked, 
were  handed  in  at  the  university  today. 

A  spark  from  an  energetic  chimney  set 
fire  to  the  roof  of  a  student  rooming 
house  at  1056  West  Heniy  street  about 
8  o'clock  last  night.  The  fire  spread  down 
through  tiie  walls  so  quickly  that  Henry 
Smith  and  Colton  Brown,  two  freshmen 
who  lived  up  under  the  roof  and  were 
the  only  tenants  present,  made  a  flying 
escape  with  a  few  college  pennants  in 
each  hand. 

As  a  fire  truck  rounded  the  corner  and 
a  crowd  of  students,  coatless  and  happy, 
gathered  to  enjoy  the  thrilling  scene. 
Freshman  Henry  was  reminded  of  some- 
thing by  a  green  eyeshade  and  a  fountain 
pen  in  the  hand  of  a  nearby  spectator. 

"My  theme  is  on  the  desk,"  he  groaned. 
"I'm  a  goner.  It's  a  flunk  if  it  isn't 
handed  in  tomorrow." 

"So's  mine.  We  got  to  get  'em,"  agreed 
Freshman  Brown,  and  he  disappeared 
through  the  front  door  of  the  burning 
house  two  jumps  ahead  of  the  firemen. 

Five  minutes  later  he  reappeared,  via 
the  rear  fire  escape,  wet-eyed  and  happy, 
waving  two  painfully  prepared  but 
slightly  smoked  compositions.  The  fire 
met  defeat  as  it  reached  the  second  floor 
but  left  the  freshmen's  room  a  total  loss. 

Dr.  Theodore  Hall,  English  instructor, 
remarked  this  morning  that  smoked  themes 
are  as  good  as  fresh  ones  if  handed  in 
on  time. 


52 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


Unusual  Incidents. — This  story  is  interesting  mainly 
because  it  relates  a  happening  that  is  not  likely  to  come 
to  everyone.  Also,  in  this  story  the  fact  that  one  actor 
in  the  little  drama  is  a  man  of  great  prominence  adds  to 
+he  interest: 

TARRYTOWN,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  14.— John 
D.  Rockefeller  gave  two  bright  new  dimes 
to  a  sweet-voiced  little  girl  who  sang 
"Mother  o'  Mine"  to  an  accompaniment 
by  ferryboat  musicians  while  the  nation's 
wealthiest  man  was  crossing  in  his  auto- 
mobile today  from  Nyack  to  Tarrytown. 
The  child  was  in  an  automobile  with  her 
parents. 

Mr.  Rockefeller  ordered  his  chauffeur 
to  let  down  the  window  of  his  car  when 
the  girl  began  singing  and  sat  listening 
intently.  After  she  finished  her  first  song, 
which  was  "Love  Is  All,"  the  Oil  King 
applauded  vigorously,  and  thereafter  the 
girl  sang  to  him  directly.  She  sang  three 
songs'  before  the  feiTyboat  reached  Tarry- 
town. 

As  the  boat  swung  into  her  berth,  Mr. 
Rockefeller  searched  his  pockets  and  pro- 
duced the  two  new  dimes.  His  chauffeur 
handed  them  to  the  small  minstrel.  Miss 
Virginia  Denike  of  Hastings — that  was 
her  name — bowed  prettily  and  told  Mr. 
Rockefeller  that  she  would  have  the  coins 
pierced  to  wear  round  her  neck  on  a 
ribbon. 

Children's  Doings — Almost  anything  that  children  do 
interests  their  elders,  and  many  a  newspaper  narrative  has 
no  other  reason  for  existence  than  interest  in  children,  as 
the  following : 


NARRATIVES  WITH  A  PURPOSE  53 

Little  Harold,  13  years  old,  tired  of  the 
irksome  duties  of  a  private  school  in 
Racine,  Wis.  He  was  also  homesick. 
Packing  up  his  belongings,  he  ran  away. 
When  he  arrived  at  his  home  in  Chicago, 
he  found  his  mother  gone,  house  locked, 
and  all  of  his  friends  out  of  town.  A 
neighbor  told  him  that  his  mother  was  in 
Kansas  City  visiting  a  relative. 

Harold  had  never  been  in  such  a  pre- 
dicament before  and  decided  to  talk  to 
his  mother  about  it.  Accordingly  he  told 
the  long  distance  telephone  operator  about 
his  trouble.  In  a  few  minutes  his  mother 
was  on  the  wire. 

This  is  the  mother's  half  of  the  con- 
versation which  lasted  about  forty  minutes 
at  the  rate  of  $2.75  for  the  first  three 
minutes  and  90  cents  for  each  succeeding 
three  minutes. 

[Several  paragraphs  of  her  instructions 
to  Harold  about  getting  the  house  kej^, 
finding  something  to  eat,  opening  the 
kitchen  cabinet,  going  to  Aunt  Mollie's 
house,  hunting  up  clean  blouses,  apologiz- 
ing to  his  teacher  and  explaining  why  he 
ran  away  from  school — all  of  this  is 
quoted  verbatim  in  the  original  story.] 

And  then  Harold's  mother  consumed 
six  minutes  in  telling  her  offspring  what 
she  might  do  to  him  when  she  got  home 
if  he  did  not  go  directly  back  to  school. 
Then  she  talked  to  the  telephone  rate 
clerk. 

"What's  that  you  say?  I  owe  $13.55. 
I  never  heard  of  such  robbery."  The 
conversation  ended. 

Animal  Stories — Our  interest  in  animals  is  a  close  sec- 
ond to  our  interest  in  children.  Many  stories  capitalize 
this  interest ;  often  to  arouse  pathos,  as  in  the  following : 


54 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


Yellow  he  was  and  insignificant  looking 
but  he  was  having  the  time  of  his  stubby- 
tailed  life  chasing  big  black  bugs  under 
the  light  at  Howard  and  Sixth  avenues — 
and  eating  them. 

There  was  no  one  to  tell  him  to  go 
home,  this  little  mongrel  dog,  hardly  more 
than  a  pup,  left  to  shift  for  himself  in 
the  great,  big  world.  But  the  plenitude 
of  big  black  bugs  kept  him  occupied  and 
kept  his  little  ears  wiggling.  There  were 
so  many  bugs  that  he  could  hardly  tell 
which  one  to  go  after  next — he  didn't  see 
or  hear  the  street  car. 

The  little  yellow  body  was  mangled,  but 
he  was  still  alive  after  the  car  rattled  on 
and  he  was  howling  with  pain.  Joe  Las- 
ley,  patrolman,  saw  the  pup  disappear 
in  the  shadow  of  the  car,  saw  the  little 
twisting  shape  after  the  car  went  on,  and 
heard  the  howls  of  agony. 

"Poor  little  feller,"  said  Joe.  He 
crossed  over,  reaching  under  his  coat  as 
he  walked.  There  was  a  shot  and  the 
howling  hushed.  An  hour  afterward, 
the  man  sent  to  haul  the  mongrel  away 
came  along  Lasley's  beat  looking  for 
him. 

"Lasley,  I've  got  another  dog  for  you 
to  kill,"  he  said.     "Come  on  back  here.'* 

A  big  black  dog  stood  over  the  body 
of  the  little  mongrel.  Lasley  had  seen 
him  standing  not  far  away  before.  As 
they  approached,  the  big  dog  was  look- 
ing first  up  and  then  down  the  street, 
whining.  When  he  recognized  Lasley, 
his  whine  became  a  bared-tooth  gTowl. 
He  snapped  and  the  men  retreated. 

"No,  you  ain't  got  any  dog  for  me  to 
kill,"  Lasley  announced.  "You  go  along. 
I'll  watch  him.     He  ain't  got  no  tag,  and 


NARRATIVES  WITH  A  PURPOSE  55 

I  suppose  he  ought  to  be  killed.  But 
I  ain't  going  to  do  it.  There  ain't  no 
politics  in  his  sort  of  friendship." 

When  Lasley  passed  the  last  time  for 
the  night,  the  big  dog  still  stood  over  his 
little  mongTel  friend.  He  growled  and 
then  the  growl  trailed  off  into  a  whine 
of  canine  grief.  The  garbage  man  hauled 
away  the  little  body  the  next  morning. 
[From  the  Kansas  City  Star.] 

Humorous  Stories — Many  of  these  little  newspaper  nar- 
ratives make  an  attempt  to  be  humorous,  but  there  are 
dangers  to  be  avoided.  If  the  humor  is  overdone,  it  may 
turn  into  a  tiresome  attempt  to  be  "funny."  On  the  other 
hand,  it  may  make  fun  of  someone  in  a  harmful  way. 
There  is  enough  good  humor  in  the  world  without  that. 
The  following  seems  to  avoid  both  dangers : 

Escorted  by  Policeman  Thomas  Dono- 
van, music  critic  of  the  East  Chicago 
Avenue  Station,  George  Charris  of  61 
West  Huron  street,  a  w^andering  minstrel, 
appeared  today  before  Judge  Morgan. 
Mr.  Charris  was  charged  with  having  in- 
haled too  deeply  of  the  miasmic  vapors 
that  float  about  North  Clark  street  soft 
drinkeries.  An  empty  bottle  that  recently 
had  served  as  a  vase  for  flowers  of  the 
corn  was   introduced  as   evidence. 

Thomas  Kladavich,  745  North  Clark 
street,  was  the  flrst  witness. 

"I  heard  him  sinking  through  the  side- 
walk," was  Mr.  Kladavich's  startling 
announcement. 

"You  what?"  inquired  Judge  Morgan 
with  an  air  of  scientific  interest. 

"I  heard  him  sinking  through  the  side- 
walk," repeated  the  witness.  "I  was  on 
top.     He  was  underneath   in  a  cafe  or 


56 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


something  and  he  was  sinking.  What  it 
was  he  sunk  I  can't  remember." 

"That  is  my  trouble,  judge/'  observed 
the  defendant.  "Nobody  can  remember 
the  songs  I  sing — not  even  myself.  If 
I  could  remember  them  I'd  make  a  for- 
tune. I  have  a  fine  mouth  for  music — 
two  more  wisdom  teeth  than  Mary 
Garden — and  my  ears  are  larger  than 
Muratore's.  But  my  auditoiy  memory,  if 
I  may  call  it  such,  is  vei^'  poor.  It  has 
led  me  into  many  troubles. 

"Once  in  a  misguided  moment  1 
learned  to  sing  in  a  language  peculiarly 
adapted  to  song — the  Singalese.  But  now 
I  can  remember  it  only  subconsciously. 
The  songs  that  I  sing  are  beautiful,  but 
not  lasting.    I  can  never  recall  them." 

"What  was  he  singing  when  you  picked 
him  up?"  inquired  the  judge  of  Officer 
Donovan. 

"It  sounded  to  me  like  'Ireland  Must 
Be  Heaven,'  "  replied  the  policeman.  "It 
was  the  most  mel-odious  singing  I  ever 
heard." 

"Ah,  yes,"  mused  Mr.  Charris,  "I  al- 
ways sing  those  light  songs  when  illumi- 
nated. I  love  that  one  because  I  am  a 
harp." 

"You're  a  lyre,"  corrected  Policeman 
Donovan. 

"Give  the  singer  the  air,"  suggested  the 
judge.     [From  the  Chicago  Daily  News.l 

Pathetic  Stories. — Probably  most  human  interest  stories 
are  pathetic  because  pathos  appeals  to  a  deep  emotion. 
There  is  great  danger  always  that  the  pathos  may  be  over- 
done and  become  ridiculous.  The  sure  test,  however,  is 
whether  the  pathos  really  exists  in  the  situation.  Test  the 
following : 


NARRATIVES  WITH  A  PURPOSE 


57 


Drums  will  beat  a  last  "retreat"  for 
Patrick  Fay,  70  years  old,  who  died  yester- 
day "in  the  service  of  his  country."  It 
was  his  third  war,  his  friends  say,  and 
he  is  deserving  of  fitting  honors. 

In  '61  and  again  in  '98,  "Pat"  Fay 
followed  the  flag.  With  the  same  spirit 
last  summer  he  offered  himself  to  his 
country.  He  was  too  old,  officials  de- 
clared, but  he  begged  for  anything  to  do. 
They  made  him  night  watchman  at  the 
quartermaster  supply  depot  at  Thirty- 
ninth  and  Robey  streets. 

Like  an  ever-watchful  sentinel  he  made 
his  rounds.  On  his  last  trip  yesterday 
he  thrust  his  head  into  the  elevator  shaft 
to  see  where  the  cage  was.  It  descended 
and  struck  him.  He  died  in  St.  Anthony's 
Hospital.  "Pat"  lived  at  4437  North 
Maplewood  avenue. 


EXERCISES  VI 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  clip  all  the  human  interest 
stories  you  can  find  in  a  few  issues  of  the  daily  paper. 
Classify  them.  Be  prepared  to  discuss  their  appeal.  Are 
they  interesting  and  effective?  (If  the  newspaper  con- 
tains no  such  stories,  find  human  interest  passages  in 
other  news  articles.) 

Tuesday 

1.  Make  a  list  of  ten  incidents  you  have  seen  about  town 
or  school  in  the  last  few  days  that  may  be  made  into 
human  interest  narratives.  They  must  be  true  stories, 
and  to  watch  for  them  will  develop  observation.  The 
zoo  or  railway  station  is  a  good  place  to  look  for  them. 

2.  Point  out  those  on  the  list  that  might  be  related  to  a 
topic  of  current  interest  to  increase  their  value.  Classify 
them  as  humorous  or  pathetic. 


58  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Wednesday 

1.  Sum  up  one  of  these  incidents  in  one  sentence  so  as  to 
point  out  the  appeal  to  be  sought.  Write  such  a  sentence 
for  each  of  the  ten.  In  class,  these  will  be  tried  out 
on  the  board  and  possible  elaboration  will  be  discussed. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

The  Business  OfiSce 

Like  any  factory  a  newspaper  plant  has  a  business  staff 
to  handle  purchases,  sales,  and  bookkeeping ;  in  fact,  the  busi- 
ness staff  may  exceed  the  editorial  staff  in  size.  The  novel 
part  of  its  organization,  however,  is  that  it  has  two  distinct 
sales  departments — one  to  sell  the  manufactured  product  and 
the  other  to  sell  a  by-product,  advertising  space.  The  entire 
staff  is  under  a  business  manager  and  is  divided  into  three 
branches:  circulation,  advertising,  and  bookkeeping.  The 
circulation  manager,  with  his  staff  of  solicitors,  distributors, 
mailing  room  men,  carrier  boys,  truck  drivers,  has  the  double 
duty  of  developing  sales  and  of  making  deliveries.  While 
seeking  new  subscribers  and  purchasers,  he  must  manage  a 
complicated  system  of  mailing  to  individual  out-of-town  sub- 
scribers, of  shipping  bundles  to  out-of-town  distributors,  of 
catching  trains  with  various  editions,  of  organizing  newsboys 
to  sell  on  the  street,  and  of  delivering  to  city  subscribers. 
But  for  all  his  work,  the  circulation  income  barely  pays  for 
the  white  paper  and  the  chief  income  is  obtained  by  the 
advertising  manager  and  his  solicitors  who  sell  space  to 
local  and  out-of-town  advertisers.  The  advertising  really 
supports  the  paper,  but  advertising  cannot  be  obtained  unless 
adequate  circulation  has  been  built  up  through  popular  edi- 
torial matter  and  adequate  sales.  The  financial  side  of  news- 
paper making  is  thus  complicated  by  the  interrelation  of 
various  efforts,  by  the  small  sums  handled  in  sales,  and  by  the 
fluctuation  in  advertising  and  circulation  through  popular 
whim  or  business  condition. 


NARRATIVES  WITH  A  PURPOSE  59 

1.  Study  the  display  advertisements,  noting  the  variety  of 
enterprises,  sizes,  arrangements,  illustrations.  What  pro- 
portion of  the  newspaper's  total  space  do  they  occupy? 

2.  How  many  want-ads  are  there?  At  the  published  rate, 
what  is  the  approximate  revenue  from  this  source? 

3.  From  the  published  price  and  circulation,  less  about  one- 
half  for  distribution,  what  is  the  daily  revenue  from 
circulation?  How  many  day's  sales  total  the  cost  of 
one  linotype,  $3,500? 

4.  Can  you  see  any  efforts  to  get  circulation  outside  the 
home  city? 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  executive  and  administrative  officers 
in  your  city  government.  Which  are  elective  and  which 
are  appointive?  What  are  their  terms  and  when  are 
the  elections  held?  What  are  the  names  of  the  present 
officials  ?  To  what  political  party  does  each  belong  ?  How 
long  has  each  been  in  office  and  what  are  his  duties? 
As  sources  of  routine  city  news,  what  records  or  in- 
formation does  each  have?  Go  to  the  city  hall,  visit 
their  offices,  and  note  the  number  of  employees.  The 
city  clerk  will  probably  give  you  a  printed  list  of  city 
officials.    Memorize  these  facts  and  file  them. 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test  and  discussion  of  the  above. 
Which  of  these  have  been  mentioned  in  the  newspapers 
this  week?  In  what  connection?  Compare  the  council 
form  and  commission  form  of  city  government. 


CHAPTER  VII 
WRITING  HUMAN  INTEREST  STORIES 

Once  one  has  a  good  idea  of  human  interest  narratives, 
it  is  easy  to  find  plenty  of  material  to  write  about.  It  is 
all  a  question  of  seeing  interesting  happenings.  It  is  not 
an  exaggeration  to  say  that  in  a  walk  down  a  busy  street 
one  should  see  material  for  one  human  interest  story  in 
every  block.  The  difficulty  is  that,  whereas  one  writer  sees 
two  stories  in  each  block,  another  does  not  see  one  all  day. 
The  latter  person  "sees"  as  many  of  them  but  does  not 
realize  their  possibilities.  He  is  lacking  in  the  sympathy 
and  understanding  that  make  all  life  interesting.  Even 
the  most  alert  person  may  not  always  see  the  narrative 
possibilities  at  once;  it  is  often  necessary  to  develop  the 
habit  of  observation. 

But  with  the  subject  matter  in  hand  and  an  understand- 
ing of  its  meaning,  the  more  simply  and  unaffectedly  the 
story  is  told,  the  better  it  is  likely  to  be.  To  acquire  this 
desirable  simplicity  and  to  get  the  right  point  of  view,  it 
is  well  to  know  exactly  to  whom  you  are  telling  the  story. 
If  you  simply  write  it  to  anyone,  it  is  likely  to  be  rather 
pointless,  but  if  you  tell  it  to  a  particular  person,  a  class- 
mate, for  example,  you  will  know  just  what  to  say  to  in-, 
terest  him.  So  in  all  newspaper  writing  one  may  gain 
point  by  writing  "to''  a  particular  reader. 

The  telling  of  a  human  interest  story  is  just  the  same 
problem  as  the  writing  of  any  narrative,  for  example,  the 

60 


WRITING    HUMAN    INTEREST   STORIES      61 

narratives  studied  in  preceding  chapters.  The  material 
must  be  digested  and  outlined.  If  the  story  is  told  in  the 
form  of  full-length  scenes,  rather  than  condensed  synopsis, 
it  is  likely  to  be  more  interesting. 

The  Beginning — Ordinarily  the  most  important  part  of 
a  human  interest  story  is  the  beginning.  In  all  journal- 
istic writing,  for  that  matter,  the  beginning  is  important 
because  it  must  attract  the  reader.  The  writer  must  think 
of  the  reader  as  glancing  through  the  newspaper  looking 
for  something  interesting.  As  the  reader  glances  at  the 
various  articles  he  reads  only  the  beginning,  and,  unless 
that  interests  him,  he  probably  goes  on  to  the  next.  This 
does  not  mean  that  the  beginning  need  be  startling — just 
interesting.  There  are,  of  course,  hundreds  of  different 
beginnings ;  the  more  original,  the  better.  It  is  safe  to  say, 
in  general,  that  description  or  exposition  make  poor  be- 
ginnings. The  best  start-off  is  one  that  contains  action  or 
a  promise  of  action.     Some  of  the  possibilities  follow. 

Direct  Quotation — Many  effective  human  interest  nar- 
ratives begin  with  direct  quotation  of  a  remark  made  by 
one  of  the  actors  in  the  story.  This  beginning  is  good 
because  the  quotation  marks  contain  a  promise  of  some- 
thing concrete: 


"If  Ah's  ever  arrested  again,  Ah  sure 
is  goin'  to  hire  a  lawyer." 

Mose  White,  the  gentlemanly  Negro 
forger,  says  he  is  just  as  sure  of  it  now 
as  he  will  be  in  six  months — when  his 
sentence  is  finished.  In  vain  he  tried  to 
act  as  his  own  counsel  in  municipal  court 
this  morning,  and  not  all  his  white  gloves, 
grey  spats,  silk  hat,  or  even  his  freckled 
shirt  availed  him. 


62  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Action  Beginning — ^A  sentence  or  paragraph  containing 
action  attracts  the  reader  at  once,  hut  this  requires  ex- 
planation later  that  must  be  handled  in  such  a  way  as  not 
to  stop  the  action. 

Mickey  Duggan,  who  lives  down  close 
to  the  Gowanus  Canal,  where  the  oil  drip- 
pings make  little  rainbow  patches  in  the 
turbid  water,  was  not  at  school  today. 
About  10:30  o'clock  he  caught  his  small 
sister  Maggie  by  a  grimy  hand  and  ran 
so  fast  up  Fourth  street  with  her  that 
Maggie's  stockings  fell  down. 

"De  coieus!"  he  yelled,  and  his  eyes 
were  big  and  glistening  with  excitement. 

Summary  Beginning — In  the  beginning  that  sums  up 
the  meaning  or  some  part  of  the  story  the  chief  requisite 
is  that  it  shall  contain  a  promise  of  much  more  than  it 
tells.    It  should  arouse  the  reader's  curiosity: 

It's  not  easy  for  the  layman  to  judge 
from  the  countenance  of  an  elephant 
whether  he  is  happy  or  unhappy,  em- 
barrassed or  perfectly  at  ease,  but  twenty 
thousand  or  more  "kids  and  kiddies"  who 
crowded  into  Fenway  Park  this  morning 
would  all  agree,  if  such  a  question  were 
asked  them,  that  "Molly,"  "Waddy,"  and 
"Hony"  thoroughly  enjoyed  the  process 
of  naturalization  that  made  them  duly 
constituted  residents  of  Boston  forever. 

Generality  or  Moral. — The  same  idea  is  often  carried 
out  by  means  of  a  statement  of  the  meaning  or  moral  of 
the  narrative.  This  must  be  done  well,  for  readers  gen- 
erally do  not  like  to  have  morals  pointed  out  to  them: 


WHITING    HUMAN    INTEREST  STORIES       63 

Fate  dealt  harshly  with  George  Mears, 
lifetime  convict,  today  after  leading  him 
to  his  downfall  with  rosy  promise  of  free- 
dom and  a  few  years  of  happiness. 

Question  Beginning — If  the  reader  sees  a  short,  pointed 
question,  he  cannot  resist  trying  to  answer  it  and  is  likely 
to  read  the  story  to  find  the  answer: 

Have  you  ever  seen  anybody  laugh 
with  his  hands? 

If  you  never  have,  you  should  have 
eased  yourself  up  against  a  railing  at  the 
Barnum  and  Bailey  circus  in  the  Amphi- 
theater today  and  watched  a  band  of  250 
deaf  mute  youngsters,  all  bedecked  in 
their  bestest,  signalling  all  over  the  arena. 
Their  teachers  who  brought  them  from 
the  State  School  signalled  as  you  and 
I   do. 

Appeal  to  Reader — This  is  good  occasionally  but  is 
much  overworked.  In  some  stories  it  is  almost  imper- 
tinent : 

If  you  cannot  go  uptown  to  see  the 
police  parade  this  afternoon,  you  might 
stay  in  the  financial  district  and  see  $49,- 
355,000  march  from  the  Fourth  National 
Bank  building  on  Nassau  street  to  the 
Mechanics  National  Bank  in  Wall  street. 
Most  of  the  sum  is  in  securities,  but 
nearly  $12,000,000  is  in  cash. 

After  the  Beginning — In  tlie  rest  of  the  story  there  are 
one  or  two  devices  that  may  make  the  story  more  interest- 
ing. They  depend  upon  the  idea  that  readers  are  in- 
terested in  concrete,  actual  things.  The  danger  is  that  too 
much  of  the  story  will  be  told  in  summary  form  with  too 


64  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

little  action.  The  writer  must  present  mncli  of  the  story 
in  full-length  form. 

Dialogue — Direct  quotation  with  quotation  marks  is 
always  good  because  it  not  only  contains  something  real 
and  actual,  but  it  ^'looks''  interesting.  It  is  a  shameful 
waste  of  possibilities  to  sum  up  an  exchange  of  remarks  in 
indirect  form,  if  space  permits  quotation  of  the  exact 
words  spoken.  Notice  the  relative  effectiveness  of  the 
two  ways  of  presenting  the  following  remarks:  Summary: 
Henry  angrily  told  Alfred  to  cease  finding  fault  with  him. 
Quotation:  ''Stop  jawin  meF'  said  Henry  angrily.  In 
handling  the  direct  form  devote  a  separate  paragraph  to 
each  speaker's  remarks;  effectiveness  is  lost  if  a  series 
of  remarks  is  run  together  in  one  paragraph. 

Examples. — Illustrations  and  examples  increase  interest 
and  break  the  monotony  of  generalities.  Space  sometimes 
forbids  the  use  of  many  examples,  but  it  is  usually  worth 
while  to  condense  something  else  to  save  space  for  ex- 
amples. For  instance,  here  is  a  generality:  Joh7i  is 
naturally  surly  and  never  goes  out  of  his  way  to  please 
anybody.  Notice  how  much  more  interesting  this  becomes 
when  told  by  means  of  an  example:  As  John  luas  ivalhing 
down  the  street  today,  a  mans  hat  blew  off,  rolled  doivn 
the  street,  and  stopped  against  John's  foot.  He  pushed  it 
aside  and  went  on.  ''He  doesn't  waste  much  time  on 
politeness,  I  should  say,"  the  owner  of  the  hat  said  to  his 
companion.  This  idea  may  be  carried  much  further  by 
means  of  anecdotes  to  present  character  or  the  background 
of  the  story,  but  they  must  be  a  definite  part  of  the  story's 
action. 

Climax. — Sometimes  it  is  possible  to  build  up  suspense 
and  to  keep  the  reader  waiting  breathless  for  the  last  line. 


WRITING    HUMAN   INTEREST   STORIES      65 

Other  times  the  principal  episode  is  held  in  mystery  and 
then  brought  in  as  a  surprise.  It  is  always  possible  to  work 
up  to  a  climax  of  more  or  less  intensity.  These  devices 
must,  of  course,  be  worked  out  in  the  preliminary  planning 
before  the  actual  writing  begins. 

Human  Interest. — The  real  success  lies,  however,  in  the 
writer's  attitude  toward  the  story.  It  must  be  built  on 
human  interest  and  sympathy,  and  these  are  qualities  in 
the  writer's  mind.  He  must  see  the  meaning  of  the  story 
he  is  telling,  must  visualize  his  characters  as  human  beings, 
and  must  be  truly  absorbed  in  the  story.  Unless  human 
sympathy  is  in  the  writei^s  mind,  it  wall  not  get  into  the 
story  at  all;  if  it  is  in  the  writer's  mind,  he  cannot  keep 
it  out  of  the  story.  If  you  are  writing  the  pathetic  story 
of  an  orphan,  you  must  try  to  put  yourself  in  the  orphan's 
place  and  to  see  how  the  world  looks  from  that  point  of 
view.  Many  writers  fail  because  the  persons  they  write 
about  are  merely  names,  and  their  doings  are  looked  upon 
impersonally  like  the  antics  of  a  trained  dog.  The  writer 
who  succeeds  with  human  interest  narratives  does  so 
because  every  person  in  his  story  is,  to  him,  a  living  human 
being. 

EXERCISES  VII 
Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  study  the  beginnings  of 
human  interest  stories  found  in  newspapers.  Classify 
them.    Be  ready  to  suggest  better  beginnings  in  class. 

Tuesday 

1.  Select  the  best  subject  from  the  ten  worked  out  last 
Tuesday  and  write  five  reasons  why  this  would  make  a 
story.  Write  the  narrative  in  brief  synopsis  form  as  a 
preliminary  exercise  to  work  it  out  in  your  mind.  In 
the  synopsis  mark  the  parts  that  are  worth  writing  out 


66  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

in  full  with  dialogue  and  action.     Be  ready  to  present 
this  orally  in  class. 

Wednesday 

1.  Try  the  various  suggested  beginnings  on  the  narrative 
you  have  chosen.  After  selecting  the  best  beginning, 
finish  the  story. 

2.  Go  over  the  completed  narrative  in  detail  to  see  if  it 
might  be  improved  by  the  injection  of  more  dialogue, 
examples,  etc.  Does  it  contain  suspense,  climax,  or 
surprise  ? 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Kinds  of  News  Emphasized 

The  many  different  kinds  of  reading  matter  in  a  modern 
newspaper  were  investigated  briefly  several  weeks  ago. 
Further  analysis  is  needed  to  learn  the  way  in  which  news- 
paper policy  may  be  determined  from  the  relative  amount 
of  space  devoted  to  the  various  kinds.  AVhether  a  newspaper 
gives  more  space  to  local  news — events  in  the  home  city — or 
to  telegraph  news  from  outside,  depends  largely  upon  its 
situation  and  competition.  The  smaller  the  city  and  the 
nearer  its  metropolitan  competitors,  the  more  likely  the  home- 
town newspaper  is  to  devote  itself  mainly  to  local  news,  in 
which  the  large  city  paper  cannot  compete,  and  to  give  but 
brief  space  to  national  and  world  news,  in  which  the  metro- 
politan paper  excels.  In  its  telegraph  news  something  of 
its  strength  and  initiative  may  be  seen  in  the  employment 
of  special  correspondents  in  other  cities  rather  than  de- 
pendence upon  a  press  association.  But  it  is  often  said  that 
the  real  difference  between  newspapers  lies,  not  in  the  news 
printed,  but  in  the  reading  matter  of  other  types.  That  is, 
it  is  said  that  newspapers  attain  individuality  through  the 
departments,  features,  special  articles,  and  other  special  read- 
ing matter.    If  such  is  the  case,  these  problems  are  worthy  of 


WRITING    HUMAN    INTEREST    STORIES      67 

study,  and  the  study  should  determine  to  what  extent  these 
features  are  "home-made"  or  are  purchased  ready-made  from 
outside  sources. 

1.  Measure  the  number  of  inches  of  local  news  as  compared 
with  total  of  telegraph  news  (usually  indicated  by  date- 
line). 

2.  Of  the  telegraph  news,  how  much  is  supplied  by  special 
correspondents  as  indicated  by  "special"  or  similar  label  ? 

3.  What  department  editors  does  the  paper  appear  to  have  ? 
What  special  writers  or  artists?  Mark  material  clipped 
or  purchased  from  other  newspapers. 

4.  How  many  words  are  supplied  each  day  by  the  editor- 
in-chief  and  editorial  writers? 

5.  What  newspapers  compete  with  it  in  the  home  field? 
Is  its  selection  of  news  such  as  to  meet  this  competition  ? 

6.  In  what  special  features,  if  any,  is  it  distinctive? 
Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  What  courts  sit  in  your  city  and  what  courts  include 
your  city  in  their  jurisdiction,  including  municipal, 
county,  state  district  and  circuit,  and  federal?  What 
is  the  name  of  the  judge  in  each  court?  What  is  the 
court's  jurisdiction  and  the  nature  of  its  business? 
Name  the  prosecutor  in  each  court.  (See  state  blue 
book  for  these  facts.)  In  what  building  does  each  court 
sit,  and  w^hen?  Try  to  attend  a  session  and  note  the 
proceedings  from  the  point  of  view  of  a  newspaper 
reporter.     Memorize  these  facts  and  file. 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test  and  oral  discussion.  What 
important  cases  have  been  in  the  papers  this  week? 
Define  "defendant,"  "plaintiff,"  "bailiff,"  "cross  ex- 
amination," "executor,"  "administrator,"  "receiver," 
"prosecuting  attorney,"  "brief,"  etc.    Current  news. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

SENTENCES 

Our  writing  of  narratives  has  shown  the  need  of  a  brief 
study  of  sentence  structure  and  sentence  length  before  we 
take  up  other  tyj^es  of  articles.  It  may  take  us  into  some 
study  of  grammar.  But,  although  we  shall  devote  a  week 
to  discussing  sentence  structure,  it  must  not  lead  us  into 
stiffness,  self-consciousness,  and  affectation  in  our  writing. 
To  avoid  this,  it  may  best  be  taken  up  as  a  matter  of 
revision  of  articles  already  written. 

What  kind  of  sentences  would  one  expect  to  find  in 
journalistic  writing  ?  Obviously  sentences  that  are  easy 
to  read.  Involved  sentences  that  require  interpretation 
and  close  attention  are  out  of  place.  Journalistic  writing 
is  read  rapidly;  its  content  and  thought  must  be  clear  at 
once ;  the  grammar  must  not  obtrude  itself.  If  a  sentence 
needs  to  be  reread  to  be  understood,  it  is  not  good,  as 
this:  Marshal  Smith  is  charged  in  Washingtmi  with  scar- 
ing half  the  anarchists  that  the  government  wants  into 
cover  by  his  raids.  Journalistic  sentences  are  almost  al- 
ways read  silently.  ISTewspaper  or  magazine  readers  seldom 
read  aloud  or  notice  individual  words ;  their  readine:  is  al- 
most  scanning.  Journalistic  sentences  must  stand  this  test. 
Length. — The  problem  is  to  discover  the  qualities  that 
make  up  this  rapidity  and  clearness.  Is  it  sentence 
length?  It  is  often  said  that  journalistic  sentences  are 
shorter  than  literary  sentences.     The  test  is  to  count  the 

68 


SENTENCES  69 

words  in  a  few  sentences  in  a  well-edited  newspaper  and  to 
compare  the  average  with  sentences  in  other  kinds  of 
writing.  The  conclusion  will  probably  be  that,  whereas  the 
average  sentence  length  is  about  the  same  and  many  news- 
paper sentences  are  shorter,  the  main  diit'erence  lies  in 
the  absence  of  extremely  long  sentences  in  the  newspaper. 
It  is  evidently,  then,  not  a  question  of  length,  except  as  the 
length  is  affected  by  other  qualities.  It  is  probable  that 
the  difference  will  be  found  to  depend  on  greater  compact- 
ness, conciseness,  and  directness — upon  the  evident  attempt 
to  make  the  sentences  simpler,  clearer,  and  easier  to  read. 
How  is  this  attained  ? 

Unity. — The  first  requisite  is  that  sentences  have  unity ; 
that  is,  that  each  sentence  be  concerned  with  a  single 
thought  and  its  modifiers.  To  crowd  several  groups  of 
ideas  into  the  same  sentence  always  results  in  confusion  of 
grammar  and  thought;  for  example:  Angel  Decorah  ivas 
horn  on  the  Winnebago  reservation  and  was  sent  to  Hamp- 
ton Institute  ivhere  the  foundation  of  her  education  was 
laid  in  the  days  when  Indians  luere  least  interested  in  edu- 
cation. Various  ideas  or  groups  of  ideas  must  be  taken 
up  one  at  a  time  and  disposed  of,  sentence  by  sentence. 
This  does  not  mean  that  ideas  should  be  so  broken  that 
sentences  are  choppy;  related  ideas  must  be  grouped  to- 
gether. Readers  think  of  sentences  as  individual  units, 
each  with  a  definite  purpose.  For  instance,  there  is  no 
unity  in  this  sentence :  The  speaker  ended  an  hours  talk; 
he  fore  lie  hegan,  John,  who  is  always  late,  went  to  sleep. 
Order. — Directness  and  ease  of  reading  depend  upon  the 
order  of  words  and  ideas.  Every  sentence  has  its  three 
main  divisions — subject,  verb,  and  object,  or  attribute — 
and  various  modifying  words,  phrases,   and  clauses  are 


70  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

directly  related  to  one  or  another  of  these.  Most  of  the 
modiliers  belong  to  a  particular  word  and  must  be  near  it 
if  the  sentence  is  to  be  easy  to  read ;  for  example :  Henry 
Johnson,  farmer,  was  hilled  when  his  house  luas  blown 
down  by  the  storm  aiid  buried  in  the  debris  .  .  .  The 
sheriff  brought  the  man  he  had  arrested  on  his  raid  to  the 
county  court  house.  Much  may  be  accomplished  by  simply 
placing  modifiers  in  the  order  in  which  the  thought  is  built 
up.  Yet  this  is  no  excuse  for  the  writing  of  long, 
straggling  sentences  that  trail  along  like  this :  Smith  was 
bankrupt,  caused  by  the  recent  panic  which  swept  away 
the  fortune  which  he  had  acquired  by  harboring  the  money 
that  his  father  had  left  him  when  he  died. 

Compactness — Journalistic  sentences  are  usually  clear- 
cut  and  concise.  The  writer  says  everything  in  as  few 
words  as  possible.  He  knits  his  ideas  closely  together  and 
presents  each  idea  in  one  concise,  forceful  statement,  rather 
than  in  a  series  of  repetitions  and  additions.  Part  of  this 
conciseness  comes  by  thinking  out  w^hat  he  wishes  to  say 
before  he  tries  to  say  it.  Part  results  from  shunning 
wordiness  and  making  every  w^ord  count;  not  like  this: 
The  bear  looks  forward  to  the  first  sign  of  winter  when  he 
can  break  the  ice  in  his  tank  when  he  takes  his  morning 
hath  for  he  hates  warm  weather  aiid  enjoys  the  chill  of 
icy  water.     (Try  rewriting  it  in  half  the  space.) 

Directness — If  a  sentence  is  to  be  read  at  a  glance,  it 
must  be  direct  and  straightforward  in  its  construction. 
(1)  There  must  be  no  backing  up  and  retracing,  no  turning 
around  to  pick  up  the  subject  again.  Once  the  statement 
is  started,  it  must  go  straight  through  to  the  end ;  not  like 
this:  Bud  dropped  into  the  trench  where  the  ivounded 
German  lay  and  kicked  open  the  dugout  barrier.     (2)  Fre- 


SENTENCES  71 

quent  changes  from  active  to  passive  voice,  or  vice  versa, 
are  bad;  for  example:  The  men  went  into  the  office  and 
within  fifteen  miAiutes  their  signatures  were  affixed  to  the 
documents,  (3)  Changes  in  subject  at  every  pause  are 
quite  as  bad,  for  the  reader  must  stop  each  time  tO  pick  up 
the  new  subject;  for  example;  The  child  humped  his  head 
and  his  leg  was  bruised  .  .  .  John  sued  the  railway  a7vd 
his  employer  paid  the  cost  of  the  suit,  (4)  Inconsistency 
in  construction  of  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  that 
should  be  parallel  is  confusing;  for  example:  Designing 
and  installing  ivireless  outfits  and  sometimes  trouble  hunts 
that  kept  him  at  work  after  midnight  were  among  his  new 
duties.  (5)  Again,  since  the  active  verb  is  more  direct 
than  the  passive,  a  conscious  attempt  to  use  many  active 
verbs  will  increase  the  directness.  Notice  the  difference  in 
these : 

Passive  Verbs. — ^^In  the  Music  Memory  Contest,  the  music 
is  correlated  with  spelling,  English,  and  drawing.  In  some 
of  the  schools,  scrapbooks  are  being  made  and  interpretative 
sketches  and  clippings  inserted.  Committees  are  formed 
among  the  children  to  test  out  each  other.  At  the  end  of 
each  week  a  review  is  given  over  all  the  selections  of  the 
week." 

Active  Verbs. — "In  the  Music  Memory  Contest,  the 
teachers  correlate  the  music  with  spelling,  English,  and  draw- 
ing. In  some  schools,  the  pupils  make  scrapbooks  of  sketches 
and  clippings  and  are  forming  committees  to  test  each  other. 
Every  Friday,  the  school  reviews  the  selections  of  the  week." 

Emphasis — This  is  partly  dependent  on  word  order 
and  partly  on  grammar.  (1)  The  most  emphatic  positions 
in  a  sentence  are  the  beginning  and  the^nd,  because  the 
reader  is  most  impressed  by  the  words  he  sees  first  or  last. 
Hence,  if  a  writer  wishes  to  concentrate  attention  on  a  par- 


72  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

ticular  word  or  idea,  he  places  it  at  the  beginning  or  the 
end.  In  journalistic  writing  the  beginning  is  the  more 
emphatic  since  the  silent  reader  does  not  always  finish  the 
sentence.  Notice  the  difference  in  these:  Among  ijoung 
drivers  who  are  jmt  learning  their  machines,  gear-shifting 
is  the  part  that  bothers  most.  Or:  Gear-shifting  is  the 
hardest  thing  for  young  dnvers  to  learn.  (2)  Emphasis 
depends  also  upon  grammatical  subordination  of  various 
parts  of  the  sentence.  We  are  accustomed  to  find  the  most 
significant  statement  in  the  principal  verb  and  to  treat 
clauses  and  phrases  as  modifications  of  it;  for  example, 
There  were  ticenty  who  were  falsely  accused  of  cribbing 
which,  under  the  honor  system,  would  7iot  have  happened. 
Or:  The  honor  system  would  have  saved  tvjenty  students 
from  being  falsely  accused  of  cribbing. 

Clearness. — Because  ease  of  reading  depends  on  clear- 
ness, and  clearness  is  mainly  a  matter  of  grammar,  some 
of  its  qualifications  must  be  pointed  out  separately.  (1) 
Pronouns  commonly  destroy  clearness,  because,  unless  the 
antecedent  is  immediately  evident,  the  reader  is  confused ; 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  antecedent  is  near  the  pronoun, 
and  that  an  antecedent  is  clearly  expressed ;  not  like  this : 
The  county  adopted  Smith's  program  of  road  building, 
which  led  to  more  activity  during  the  spring.  (2)  Parti- 
ciples are  another  source  of  trouble.  When  a  participle  is 
used  as  a  verbal  adjective,  it  must  modify  a  noun,  and 
the  reader  is  accustomed  to  attaching  it  to  the  nearest 
noim;  not  like  this:  In  talking  to  John  recently,  he  told 
me  about  his  accident.  Or:  Being  one  of  the  home  papers, 
I  read  the  Herald  regularly.  An  objection  to  the  parti- 
ciple is  that  its  relation  and  reference  are  not  nearly  so 
clear  and  forceful  as  other  constructions,  such  as  relative 


SENTENCES  73 

clauses.  This  is  weak:  Eligibility  is  limited  to  students 
enrolling  in  universities  having  medical  schools.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  careless  writers  use  many  participles,  but 
caretul.  writers  seldom  use  them,  simply  because  they  do 
not  tie  ideas  together  forcefully.  The  careful  writer 
wishes  the  grammar  to  drive  home  the  logic.  (4)  The 
chief  objection  to  the  ''dangling  participle"  is  that  it  has 
no  grammatical  connection  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence, 
and  therefore  the  idea  it  conveys  is  not  tied  in  with  other 
ideas ;  careful  writers  avoid  it  because  its  looseness  typifies 
hazy  thinking ;  for  example :  Bonus  checks  will  he  sent  to 
the  hanks  J  therehy  facilitating  quick  payment.  (5)  An- 
other obstacle  is  faulty  subordination,  or  lack  of  subordina- 
tion; for  example:  The  condition  develops  into  tuherculosis 
when  a  total  collapse  results.  .  .  .  He  moved  to  Chicago 
ivhere  he  lived  tiuenty  ijears.  The  reader  expects  to  find 
the  principal  statement  expressed  in  the  principal  clause 
and  is  puzzled  when  awkward  sentence  structure  drives  the 
emphasis  upon  a  subordinate  idea;  for  example:  Slush 
and  ivater  turned  to  ice  upon  the  sidewalks,  to  the  incon- 
venience of  pedestrians. 

Simplicity. — An  important  evidence  of  simplicity  in 
journalistic  writing  is  the  small  amount  of  punctuation 
used.  A  great  array  of  semicolons  and  commas  indicates 
that  the  word  order  and  construction  are  not  as  simple, 
direct,  and  clear  as  might  be  wished.  Many  writers  con- 
sider the  necessity  of  much  punctuation  an  indication  of 
bad  writing — a  fault  to  be  corrected  not  by  simply  leaving 
out  punctuation,  but  by  reconstructing  so  that  excessive 
punctuation  is  not  needed ;  not  like  this :  The  new  test  is 
as  delicate,  if  indeed  not  more  so,  than  the  so-called  acid 
test. 


74  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Variety — The  first  result  of  an  attempt  at  simplicity 
and  directness  is  usually  a  monotonous  lack  of  variety,  and 
the  writer  must  strive  for  variety  through  conscious  effort. 
He  should  see  to  it  (1)  that  no  two  successive  sentences 
begin  with  the  same  word,  except  for  effect;  (2)  that  no 
two  succeeding  sentences  have  the  same  construction,  ex- 
cept for  contrast ;  ( 3 )  that  most  of  the  sentences  are  not  of 
the  same  particular  kind.  He  must  experiment  with 
English  grammar  until  he  learns  its  possibilities  of  trans- 
position and  reorganization.  Monotony  usually  results 
from  a  lack  of  emphasis  and  weak  logic ;  development  of 
ability  to  organize  thoughts  and  put  them  together  co- 
herently will  solve  the  problem  of  supplying  variety. 


EXERCISES  VIII 
Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  select  a  representative  article 
from  a  current  newspaper  and  bring  it  to  class,  being 
ready  to  discuss  thoroughly  the  sentence  structure. 
Work  out  an  illustration  of  each  kind  of  faulty  sentence 
mentioned. 

Tuesday 

1.  Prepare  material  for  an  article  on  one  of  the  following 

subjects  and  be  ready  to  present  it  orally  in  class : 

{a)  An  account  of  a  class  meeting,  a  club  meeting,  a 
literary  society  meeting,  a  meeting  of  the  city  coun- 
cil, or  some  other  gathering  that  you  attended  re- 
cently. 

(&)  A  readable  article  on  today's  market  conditions  in 
the  local  stores  based  on  the  market  report  in  the 
newspaper.  Perhaps  compare  today's  markets  with 
those  of  the  past  few  days. 

(c)  A  digest  of  a  recent  event  of  national  importance 
after  the  style  of  a  national  weekly  magazine. 


SENTENCES  75 

Wednesday 

1.  lu  the  article  you  prepared  yesterday,  make  a  study  of 
each  sentence  considering  the  points  discussed  in  the 
chapter  and  try  to  improve  it.  Take  up  one  point  at  a 
time. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

The  Front  Page 

The  show  window  in  which  a  newspaper  displays  its  wares 
to  attract  purchasers  is  the  front  page.  The  make-up  editor, 
who  directs  the  placing  of  articles,  headlines,  and  pictures 
on  the  front  page,  plans  his  work  with  as  much  design  as  the 
window  dresser  of  a  retail  shop.  Certain  definite  styles  and 
methods  may  be  seen  in  American  newspapers  and  may  be 
classified,  in  general,  into  three  broad  systems  of  front  page 
display:  (1)  The  "sjnimetrical"  make-up,  with  large  head- 
lines at  the  top  of  alternate  columns  and  smaller  headlines 
between.  This  system  gives  almost  equal  emphasis  to  perhaps 
four  articles.  Balanced  two-column  headlines  are  often  used. 
Often  the  symmetry  is  carried  into  the  lower  part  of  the  page. 
(2)  The  "focused"  make-up,  which  centers  all  emphasis  upon 
one  article.  This  is  worked  out  in  many  different  ways.  (3) 
The  "constant  variety"  make-up,  which  seeks  a  new  design, 
symmetrical  or  otherwise,  each  day.  New  typographical 
arrangements  are  constantly  sought.  In  unskilled  hands  it 
often  turns  in  a  hodgepodge.  When  cartoons  or  other  pictures 
are  used,  they  are  fitted  in  to  aid  whichever  of  the  three 
methods  is  being  followed.  In  other  respects,  certain  editors 
use  very  short  stories  or  break  stories  to  inside  pages  in  order 
to  place  a  large  number  of  headlines  on  the  front  page ;  other 
editors  prefer  to  display  only  a  few  important  articles.  The 
banner  headline,  which  was  at  first  largely  a  devise  used  by 
afternoon  papers  to  sell  street  editions,  was  brought  into  com- 
mon use  by  the  World  War  and  is  now  showing  various  treat- 
ment.    The  styles  of  the  front  page  change  rapidly,  and  the 


76  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

follov.'ing  of  new  ideas  is  an  interesting  phase  of  newspaper 
study. 

1.  To  which  of  the  three  general  kinds  of  make-up  does 
the  front  page  of  your  newspaper  belong?  If  a  definite 
method  is  evident,  just  how  is  it  obtained? 

2.  Are  pictures  commonly  used  ?  How  many  columns  wide 
and  how  fitted  into  the  general  scheme?  "What  boxes 
or  other  devices  are  seen? 

3.  Are  the  headlines  mainly  one  column  in  width,  or  do 
they  spread  over  two  or  more  columns;  how  many? 
How  many  decks  or  layers  are  there  in  each  variety  of 
headline  ? 

4.  Are  the  stories  short  or  long  ?  How  many  headlines  are 
there  on  the  page  each  day?  How  many  stories  are 
broken  over  to  another  page? 

5.  "When  the  banner  headline  is  used,  is  the  news  worth 
such  emphasis  or  does  the  banner  result  in  over-em- 
phasizing, or  ^^over  playing/'  one  piece  of  news? 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  W^ho  is  the  chief  of  police?  What  body  is  responsible 
for  police  protection  in  the  city?  How  many  captains, 
lieutenants,  patrolmen,  marshals,  detectives,  watchmen, 
and  other  police  officers  are  there?  How  many  police 
stations?  What  patrols,  telegraph,  or  other  equipment 
have  the  police?  Who  is  the  fire  chief?  What  body 
is  responsible  for  fire  protection?  How  many  firemen, 
drivers,  and  captains?  How  many  stations?  How 
many  companies  and  of  what  kind?  What  apparatus 
has  the  departments?  Is  it  horse-drawn  or  motor?  Is 
the  city  divided  into  fire  precincts  or  does  all  equip- 
ment answer  every  alarm?  What  is  a  "fire  under- 
writer"? Memorize  and  file.  (Data  may  be  found  iu 
reports  obtainable  at  the  city  hall.) 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test.  Discuss  recent  current 
events  of  national  import. 


CHAPTEE  IX 
DESCRIPTION 

Pure  description,  written  for  its  own  sake,  is  seldom 
seen  in  journalistic  writing.  One  occasionally  finds  the 
description  of  a  scene  that  is  in  itself  a  news  event,  such 
as  a  horse  show,  social  affair,  or  political  convention. 
Sometimes  the  description  of  a  new  building  or  a  word- 
picture  of  an  unusual  j)erson  constitutes  an  article  in  itself. 
But,  in  general,  journalistic  writers  use  description  only 
to  heighten  the  interest  in  pieces  of  writing  the  main  pur- 
pose of  which  is  to  narrate  or  explain.  A  bit  of  description 
gives  the  reader  a  glimpse  of  the  actors  in  the  narrative, 
of  the  speaker  whose  words  are  being  quoted,  of  the  scene 
of  the  action,  of  the  situation  at  any  critical  moment ;  but 
it  is  always  subordinate  to  the  action.  For  that  reason 
the  description  is  unobtrusive;  it  appears  incidentally. 
The  writer  never  stops  his  narration  to  describe ;  he  drops 
in  description  on  the  fly  as  a  by-product  of  the  same  words 
and  sentences  that  narrate  the  action.  While  he  tells  us 
how  an  automobile  accident  happened,  he  works  into  the 
same  sentences  enough  description  to  give  us  a  picture  of 
the  wreck  or  scene. 

But  before  we  can  successfully  use  description  in  this 
way,  as  a  subordinate  part  of  narration,  we  must  first  study 
description  by  itself  and  learn  how  to  handle  it  most 
effectively. 

To  Visualize. — The  purpose  of  description  is  simply  to 
present  a  picture  in  words,  to  tell  the  reader  what  the 

77 


78  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

writer  lias  seen.  Since  any  picture  or  scene  is  really,, 
nothing  more  than  a  new  arrangement  of  certain  details' 
with  which  the  reader  is  already  acquainted,  description 
is  essentially  a  list  of  the  particular  details  and  the  par- 
ticular arrangements  that  make  up  the  scene  under  discus- 
sion. The  ingredients  are  already  known  to  the  reader; 
the  writer  simply  selects  certain  of  them  and  puts  them  in 
a  new  relation.  Take,  for  instance,  the  scene  of  an  auto- 
mobile accident.  It  is  simply  a  new  grouping  of  a  number 
of  familiar  objects — an  automobile,  two  men,  three  women, 
a  paved  street,  two  trees,  a  curbstone,  a  telephone  pole,  etc. 
This  particular  automobile  wreck  differs  from  others  only 
in  the  particular  nature  of  the  objects — the  kind  of  auto- 
mobile, the  kind  of  persons,  the  kind  of  trees,  etc. — and 
the  way  in  which  the  various  objects  are  mixed  up  or  scat- 
tered about.  In  describing  the  scene  the  writer  merely 
notes  the  details,  tells  about  them,  and  puts  them  in  the 
proper  positions.  The  writer's  skill  is  shown  in  selecting 
the  particular  details  that  cause  this  wreck  to  look  different 
from  other  wrecks  and  in  putting  them  together  so  that  the 
reader  can  visualize  them.    But  how  is  it  done  ? 

Noting  Details. — Since  a  picture  is  just  a  grouping  of 
familiar  parts,  the  first  step  is  to  note  the  details — seven- 
passenger  car,  overturned,  right  rear  wheel  broken  against 
curb,  radiator  smashed  against  pole,  tree  broken  by  car, 
two  passengers  crushed  beneath  body,  one  hurled  through 
windshield  into  street,  driver  pinned  under  steering  wheel, 
marks  of  skidding  on  pavement,  throttle  open,  etc.  It 
seems  easy  to  list  them,  but  it  is  in  the  ability  to  see  details 
that  skillful  writers  differ  from  amateurs.  The  average 
man  could  stand  beside  the  wreck  for  half  an  hour  and  then 
be  unable  to  remember  more  than  three  or  four  details. 


DESCRIPTION  79 

An  experienced  writer  would  note  forty  details  in  five 
minutes  and  remember  them  all.  Half  the  problem  in 
description  is  the  noting  of  details,  and  nothing  but  prac- 
tice will  develop  ability  to  see  them. 

Essential  Details. — Another  phase  of  the  task  is  to  select 
from  the  great  mass  of  details  those  that  are  essential,  those 
that  make  this  scene  different  from  others  of  the  same  kind. 
For  example,  the  fact  that  there  are  three  trees  further 
down  the  street  and  six  on  the  opposite  side  does  not 
matter,  for  the  motor  car  did  not  strike  them ;  the  one  tree 
that  it  struck  is,  however,  essential  to  the  picture.  That 
the  car  had  four  tires  makes  little  difference,  but  the  fact 
that  it  had  no  tire  chains,  or  that  one  tire  is  flat,  does.  The 
number  of  houses  in  sight,  the  color  of  the  sky,  the  rich 
verdure  of  the  lawns,  although  a  part  of  the  scene,  are  not 
essential  to  our  description,  but  the  kind  of  pavement  and 
the  fact  that  it  was  raining  are  very  important.  And  so 
on.  The  problem  is  to  select  details  that  make  this  scene 
different. 

Grouping  Details — After  the  essential  details  have  been 
selected,  the  writer  must  put  them  together  so  as  to  present 
a  clear  picture.  It  may  be  necessary  to  describe  the  layout 
of  the  street  and  the  nature  of  the  turn  which  caused  the 
automobile  accident.  The  writer  must  describe  where  the 
skidding  started  and  how  the  car  swerved.  He  must  tell 
just  how  the  telephone  pole  impeded  its  progress,  where  the 
wheel  struck  the  curb,  what  part  of  the  car  struck  the  tree, 
the  positions  of  the  victims,  and  so  on.  In  former  times 
writers  often  went  to  the  trouble  of  diagraming  the  picture 
in  words  and  tacking  each  detail  carefully  into  position. 
In  journalistic  writing  the  writer  seldom  has  time  or  space 
to  do  this  but  he  tries  to  relate  properly  what  few  details 


80  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

he  does  present.    If  he  has  a  clear  picture  in  his  own  mind, 
he  is  likely  to  make  his  reader  see  the  picture  clearly. 

Single  Impression. — To  make  his  description  a  forceful 
part  of  the  narrative,  the  writer  usually  tries  to  select 
details  that  give  a  particular  impression  of  the  scene.  Per- 
haps he  wishes  in  his  description  of  the  auto  \vreck  to  give 
the  feeling  of  the  speed  that  caused  it ;  he  then  selects  and 
emphasizes  details  that  suggest  speed — the  open  throttle, 
the  signs  of  tremendous  force.  If  he  wishes  to  emphasize 
the  idea  that  joy-riding  caused  the  wreck,  he  can  find 
enough  details  to  give  that  feeling.  Or  if  he  thinks  that  it 
was  due  to  bad  pavement,  he  may  emphasize  details  that 
support  this  impression.  He  may  select  details  that  make 
the  description  a  gruesome  picture,  or  he  may  tell  it  in 
such  a  w^ay  as  to  arouse  sympathy.  In  other  words,  the 
describer  works  into  his  picture  his  own  impressions — the 
feeling  that  the  scene  gave  him — and  the  impression  sug- 
gests to  the  reader  many  more  details  than  the  writer  has 
time  to  tell.  It  is  simply  a  quick  and  sure  way  to  call  intcj 
the  reader's  mind  a  mass  of  facts  that  belong  in  the  picture 
but  are  kept  out  by  lack  of  space.  Such  a  method  enables 
the  reader  to  look  at  the  picture  through  the  writer's 
eyes. 

Reader's  Knowledge — Much  of  the  effectiveness  of  the 
rapid  description  seen  in  journalistic  writing  depends  on 
the  writer's  ability  to  gauge  the  reader's  knowledge  and 
to  divine  just  how  much  the  reader  is  capable  of  imagining. 
The  writer  has  no  space  to  point  out  all  the  details — ^his 
description  would  De  tiresome  if  he  did — but  he  must  de- 
pend on  the  reader's  experience  and  imagination  to  finish 
the  picture  if  he  suggests  it  and  guides  him.  The  writer 
who  begins  at  the  beginning  and  tells  everything  he  knows 


DESCRIPTION  '  81 

and  has  seen  is  a  bore ;  his  description  is  a  confused  blur. 
The  skillful  writer  knows  just  about  how  much  of  the  com- 
plete picture  each  word  suggests  and  just  when  he  has  told 
enough  to  roimd  it  out.  Most  of  us  have  seen  an  overturned 
car ;  most  of  us  know  what  happens  when  a  car  skids ;  many 
of  us  can  picture  a  radiator  crushed  against  a  pole.  Trust- 
ing to  his  reader's  imagination  to  create  these  pictures 
when  he  hears  the  words,  the  writer  need  only  finish  the 
picture  with  a  few  other  essential  details.  Some  writers 
have  this  ability  by  instinct ;  others  develop  it  by  analyzing 
their  own  imagination.  They  watch  the  picture  growing 
in  their  own  minds  as  they  marshal  the  facts,  and  they  stop 
when  their  own  mental  picture  is  complete.  The  operation 
of  creating  the  picture  is  like  the  process  of  identifying  a 
light  on  a  dark  night ;  our  minds  reproduce  the  scene  as  it 
appears  by  daylight  and  then  imagine  what  might  move 
into  it  to  produce  such  a  light. 

Clearness. — The  clarity  of  a  description  depends  upon 
all  of  these  things  and  others  as  well.  (1)  Clearness  is 
sometimes  aided  by  suggested  comparisons.  This  is  but 
another  way  of  bringing  the  reader's  imagination  into  play. 
The  quickest  way,  for  example,  to  suggest  the  look  of  this 
wrecked  car  is  to  say  that  the  body  was  crushed  like  a 
pasteboard  box.  To  say  that  the  telephone  pole  was 
^'snapped  like  a  match"  not  only  gives  a  picture  of  the 
result  but  indicates  the  speed  and  force.  But  these  com- 
parisons, however  useful,  must  be  used  sparingly  and 
always  as  subordinate  parts.  (2)  Clearness  depends  also 
upon  the  combining  of  action  with  the  static  objects,  since 
action,  by  indicating  how  the  result  was  produced,  aids  the 
imagination  in  picturing  it.  For  example,  ^^the  broken 
wheel  rested  against  the  curb"  is  not  nearly  so  clear  as  ^^the 


82 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


wheel  was  crushed  against  the  curb."    Vivid,  active  verbs 
are  needed. 

Other  considerations  will  be  brought  in  when  we  under- 
take to  build  a  description.  For  the  present,  it  will  be  well 
to  analyze  a  description  taken  from  a  newspaper.  The 
kind  most  commonly  seen  in  a  newspaper  is  likely  to  be 
a  description  of  a  building ;  here  is  one  of  a  rarer  and  more 
interesting  type : 

Seventy-five  Maypoles  in  rainbow  colors 
and  six  thousand  little  girls  with  hair- 
ribbons  to  match  made  the  beautiful  Long 
Meadow  of  Prospect  Park,  with  its  gTeen 
grass,  its  sudden  hollows,  and  its  great 
ring  of  encircling  trees,  a  veiy  gala  spot 
yesterday  afternoon  for  the  seventh  an- 
nual fete  of  the  Girls'  Branch  of  the 
Public  Schools  Athletic  League. 

The  several  grandstands  were  filled  with 
sisters  and  cousins  and  aunts;  school  offi- 
cials and  their  coteries  bedecked  the  front 
rows;  warm  policemen  shooed  women 
with  green  tickets  away  from  the  pink- 
ticket  stand,  and  Boy  Scouts,  general  as- 
sistants and  always  underfoot,  drank  tan- 
talizingly  from  their  canteens.  The  Long 
Meadow,  even  at  the  other  six  annual 
fetes,  had  never  been  more  beautiful. 

The  festival  began  with  a  carousal,  a 
Swedish  singing  ■  game,  directly  after  the 
preliminary  music  by  the  band  from  its 
bandstand  in  the  exact  center  of  the  field. 
With  a  gTand  rush  and  a  yell  the  children 
ran  on  to  the  field  from  all  sides  and  the 
excitement  had  begun.  Then  followed  a 
Danish  folk  dance,  many  more  Swedish 
games  with  names  such  as  Gustaf's  Skeal, 
Ostgotapolska,  and  Nigarepolska,  besides 
plain  American  things  like  throwing  balls 
and  jumping  ropes.     The  rope-jumping 


DESCRIPTION 


83 


was  done  in  an  improved  and  advanced 
way,  destined  not  to  kill  if  the  hundred 
mark  be  reached,  as  the  old  warning  went. 
Especially  good  was  the  dance  called 
"Seven  Jumps." 

And  at  the  last  came  the  winding  of 
the  Maypoles,  one  pole  to  each  Brooklyn 
school,  some  showing  class  colors,  and 
some  just  a  color  scheme.  From  the 
grandstands  the  sight  was  bewildering — 
everywhere  were  twinkling  little  figures, 
twining  colored  streamers,  except  in  the 
hollows  where  the  beribboned,  bobbing 
heads  only  were  visible.  When  the  poles 
were  wound  and  carried  off,  all  the  chil- 
dren, escorted  by  the  scouts,  gathered 
around  the  bandstand,  covered  with  flags 
and  bunting,  and  sang  "The  Star- 
Spangled  Banner,"  with  all  the  voice  their 
exertions  had  left  to  them.     Etc.,  etc. 


EXERCISES  IX 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  mark  in  one  issue  of  a  news- 
paper all  the  descriptions  that  you  can  find.  Are  any 
articles  entirely  composed  of  description?  In  what 
cases  does  description  fill  a  paragraph?  A  sentence? 
When  is  it  purely  a  part  of  the  narrative? 

Tuesday 

1.  Prepare  one  of  the  following: 

(a)  A  list  of  the  details  that  cause  your  classroom  to 

be  different  from  others. 
(&)  As  you  are  walking  along  the  street,  stop  for  one 

minute  to  notice  the  contents  of  a  show  window; 

then  after  turning  away,  note  how  many  things 

you  can  remember. 

2.  In  class : 

(a)  List  the  characteristics  of  a  classmate  that  make 
him  different  from  others. 


84  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

(h)  Have  someone  hold  up  a  newspaper  for  half  a 
minute  and  then  note  how  many  headlines  you  can 
remember. 

(c)   List  new  features  seen  in  a  new  building. 

Wednesday 

1.  Watch  the  gathering  at  the  railroad  station  when  a  train 
arrives  or  a  gathering  at  any  other  public  place  and 
decide  what  details  are  essential  to  a  description  of  the 
scene.  What  impression  does  it  give  you?  Discuss  it 
in  class. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

The  City  Editor 

"How  did  the  newspaper  hear  of  that?'^  readers  often  ask, 
probably  supposing  that  the  newspaper  gathers  local  news  by 
sending  reporters  to  wander  the  streets  aimlessly  "picking 
up  news."  Newspaper  folk,  on  the  other  hand,  blame  the 
city  editor  if  he  misses  an  essential  item,  for  they  know  that 
there  is  nothing  aimless  in  city  news  gathering.  They  know 
that  the  city  editor  has  a  system  whereby,  with  a  small  staff 
of  reporters  properly  assigned,  he  may  be  quite  sure  that 
no  event  will  escape  his  notice.  His  system  is  based  on  the 
fact  that  certain  city  officials  and  others  are  official  news 
gatherers,  to  whom  most  events  are  promptly  reported,  and 
from  whom  reporters  may  obtain  the  records.  There  is 
scarcely  an  event,  for  example,  that  is  not  reported  at  once 
to  the  police,  the  fire  department,  the  coroner,  hospitals, 
courts,  undertakers,  or  certain  others,  and  reporters  need 
only  to  visit  these  headquarters.  The  essence  of  the  city 
editor's  system  is,  therefore,  to  assign  reporters  to  visit 
regularly  a  certain  group,  or  "run,"  of  news  sources.  Im- 
portant "tips,"  thus  gathered,  are  worked  into  stories  through 
interviews  with  the  persons  concerned.  For  other  types  of 
news — addresses,  meetings,  interviews,  conventions,  which  are 


DESCRIPTION  85 

announced  in  advance — the  city  editor  keeps  a  "date  book" 
of  future  events  and  sends  reporters  on  "assignments"  to 
cover  them.  Since  he  has  charge  of  all  local  news,  the  city- 
editor  is  "boss"  of  the  reporters,  sends  them  on  their  runs 
and  assignments,  tells  them  how  much  to  write  when  they 
return,  and  determines  how  each  story  is  to  be  handled.  He 
also  has  charge  of  the  "copy  desk,"  at  which  copyreaders  edit 
reporters'  stories  and  write  headlines  for  them. 

1.  What  news  articles  in  one  issue  were  evidently  brought 
in  from  news  runs  of  regular  city  news  sources? 

2.  ^Tiat  articles  were  evidently  obtained  on  special  assign- 
ment? 

3.  "What  articles  show  evidence  of  the  use  of  a  "date  book" 
to  keep  track  of  coming  events  ? 

4.  What  articles  appear  to  be  based  on  stories,  rewritten 
or  followed  up,  which  appeared  in  a  previous  newspaper  ? 

5.  What  local  articles  were  evidently  brought  in  by  out- 
siders ? 

6.  Are  there  any  local  articles  based  on  other  printed 
matter  ? 

Friday  Accueacy  Exercise 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  principal  officers  in  the  government 
of  the  county  in  which  your  city  is  situated.  How  is 
each  elected  or  appointed,  and  when?  List  names  of 
present  officials.  What  are  the  duties  and  powers  of 
each?  If  your  city  is  the  county  seat,  go  to  the  court 
house  and  note  the  size  and  staff  of  the  various  offices. 
Considered  as  sources  of  news,  what  records  or  informa- 
tion does  each  office  contain.  Memorize  facts  and  file. 
(Data  may  be  obtained  from  annual  report  of  county 
board.) 

2.  In  class,  memory  test  and  discussion.  What  county 
officers  have  been  in  the  news  recently?  Other  current 
news. 


CHAPTER  X 
WRITING  A  DESCRIPTION 

But  there  are  other  things  to  be  considered  in  the  actual 
writing  of  a  description.  In  the  last  chapter  we  analyzed 
the  ingredients — the  things  of  which  a  description  is  made. 
Now  we  must  discuss  how  to  put  these  ingredients  together 
to  make  a  description. 

The  first  thing  to  do,  of  course,  is  to  notice  all  the  details 
in  the  scene  that  is  to  be  described.  Keen  observation  con- 
stitutes half  the  requirement.  It  is  not  likely  that  the 
writer  will  record  all  the  details  that  he  notices,  or  more 
than  a  small  number  of  them.  But  the  more  he  notes,  the 
richer  his  description  will  be,  the  more  material  he  will 
have  to  draw  upon  for  the  particular  point  he  wishes  to 
make.  The  good  descriptive  writer,  furthermore,  achieves 
his  success  not  so  much  by  clever  langniage  as  by  recording 
details  that  other  witnesses  have  not  seen.  He  sees  more  in 
the  scene  than  the  average  person  sees;  hence  he  fills  his 
description  with  a  new  interest,  thereby  achieving  original- 
ity. Any  good  description  contains  more  interest  than  the 
average  person  would  find  in  the  actual  scene. 

Impression. — Whether  consciously  or  not,  the  describer 
next  decides  what  impression  he  wishes  to  create  with  his 
description.  Rather,  he  analyzes  his  own  feelings  to  find 
out  what  impression  the  scene  gave  him;  then  he  tries  to 
create  the  same  impression  with  his  description.  Such  a 
method  is  entirely  proper  in  so  impersonal  a  kind  of  writ- 
ing as  that  done  for  a  newspaper.     It  is  certain  that  no 


WRITING  A  DESCRIPTION  87 

one  can  observe  any  scene  or  event  without  receiving  some 
impression  or  feeling  from  it,  without  seeing  it  through 
his  own  eyes  and  letting  his  personality  into  it.  One  man 
looks  at  a  battlefield  and  sees  nothing  but  heroism ;  another 
sees  in  the  same  battlefield  nothing  but  misery;  another 
sees  glory  and  patriotism;  another  gets  only  the  stench  of 
dead  bodies.  Each  sees  the  same  scene,  but  it  is  colored 
by  his  own  personality.  Since  this  is  so,  the  writer  says, 
"I  cannot  describe  it  in  an  impersonal  way ;  to  be  truthful, 
I  must  tell  it  as  I  saw  it;  why  not  make  my  description 
more  truthful  by  telling  how  it  made  me  feel?"  Some 
writers  do  so  consciously;  others  unconsciously;  none  ab- 
solutely avoids  it.  Young  writers  may  well  imitate  this 
method,  which  is  sure  to  tie  the  details  together  and  make 
the  description  interesting.  The  method  of  procedure  is 
simply  to  select  the  details  in  the  scene  that  gave  the  writer 
his  impression  and  present  these  to  the  reader.  But  at 
the  same  time  the  writer  must  take  care  that  he  is  not 
describing  his  own  feelings  rather  than  the  scene  itself. 
There  is  little  use  of  the  pronoun  "I"  in  journalistic  writ- 
ing. Instead  of  saying,  ''The  scene  repelled  me,"  he 
should  describe  the  things  that  repelled  him,  and  auto- 
matically the  reader  w^U  be  repelled. 

Point  of  View — Quite  as  important  is  the  point  of  view 
from  which  the  scene  is  described.  If  the  above  suggestion 
is  carried  out,  to  be  sure,  it  will  be  told  from  the  writers 
point  of  view.  But  where  will  the  writer,  or  observer,  sta- 
tion himself  ?  If  his  position  is  chosen  at  the  outset,  many 
other  problems  will  be  solved  at  once.  The  scene  may  be 
described:  (1)  in  an  impersonal  way,  as  if  the  witness 
were  above  it  in  an  aeroplane;  (2)  from  its  very  midst,  as 
if  the  observer  w^ere  a  part  of  it;    (3)   from  a  definite 


88  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

station  at  one  side,  as  if  the  spectator  stood  in  one  place 
while  he  watched;  (4)  from  a  moving  point  of  view,  as  if 
he  were  walking  about  the  scene  or  through  it.  Any  one 
of  these  points  of  view  is  possible  and  good.  But  once  the 
point  of  view  is  decided  upon,  the  writer  should  keep  it 
consistently  throughout,  if  his  description  is  to  be  real  and 
hmnan  and  interesting.  If  he  is  describing  a  burning 
building  as  it  looked  to  him  from  across  the  street,  he 
should  not  suddenly  begin  to  describe  the  interior  of  a  back 
room  upstairs  without  taking  the  reader  up  there  with  him. 
Consistency  of  point  of  view  makes  the  reader  feel  that  he 
is  seeing  what  an  actual  observer  saw  and  helps  him  to 
imagine  what  it  would  have  been  like  if  he  himself  had 
been  there.  The  point  of  view  gives  the  reader  a  pair  of 
eyes  to  look  through. 

Where  to  Begin. — Since  a  description  is  a  more  or  less 
static  thing,  it  is  often  a  problem  to  know  where  and  how 
to  begin  it — what  to  show  to  the  reader  first.  Perhaps  it 
is  wisest  to  describe  the  scene  in  the  order  in  which  things 
appeared  to  the  observer.  That  is,  no  one  is  able  to  take 
in  an  entire  scene  at  a  glance,  nor  does  he  begin  at  one 
side  and  run  through  it  like  a  panoramic  camera.  The 
moment  he  appears  on  the  scene  some  one  thing  seizes  his 
attention  and,  after  he  has  observed  that,  he  begins  to  take 
in  the  background  and  other  things  about  it.  There  is 
always  a  center  of  interest  that  catches  the  eye  first,  a  focal 
center  of  the  scene;  the  rest  comes  later.  In  trying  to  repro- 
duce the  scene  for  the  reader,  why  not  begin  with  the  center 
of  interest  and  then  systematically  buikl  a  background 
about  it  in  the  order  in  which  the  details  caught  the  eye  ? 
In  looking  at  a  sunset,  one  sees  first  the  great  glowing 
sun,  then  the  red  about  it,  then  the  yellow  and  orange 


WRITING  A  DESCRIPTION  89 

shades,  then  the  variegated  clouds,  then  the  bine  sky,  and 
finally  the  dark  shadowy  earth  below.  In  describing  it  one 
would  hardly  picture  the  earth,  the  blue  sky,  and  the  rest 
of  the  background  first,  before  mentioning  the  center  of 
interest — the  sun.  This  is  the  way  we  see  things,  and,  if 
we,  as  writers,  are  to  describe  things  so  that  readers  can 
see  them,  we  must  put  the  parts  together  in  the  order  in 
which  we  grasped  them  as  eyewitnesses.  Then  the  reader 
can  see  the  picture  through  the  w^riter's  eyes  and  believe  it. 

Narrative  Method — AH  of  this  will  indicate  that  de- 
scription, if  presented  from  the  point  of  view  of  an 
observer,  will  contain  much  action  and  much  that  is  nar- 
rative. That  is  the  true  ideal  of  journalistic  description. 
There  is  little  place  for  pure  ^Svord-painting"  description 
in  journalistic  writing.  Whatever  description  is  used  must 
be  subordinated  or  be  made  a  part  of  the  narrative.  The 
same  purpose  is  furthered  by  the  presenting  of  description 
in  a  narrative  w^ay — by  telling  the  story  of  the  describer's 
visit  to  the  scene  or  the  visit  of  some  person  in  the  story. 
The  description  then  takes  its  place  in  the  story  and  en- 
riches it  without  delaying  or  checking  the  course  of  the 
narrative. 

The  Five  Senses. — The  tendency  in  description  is  to 
depend  entirely  upon  sight,  forgetting  that  man  has  four 
other  senses  which  aid  him  in  creating  his  impression  of 
the  world.  As  we  watch  a  fire,  we  get  as  many  impressions 
through  smell,  hearing,  and  touch,  as  we  do  through  sight 
— if  there  is  much  smoke,  we  taste  it.  If  any  sense  is  not 
on  duty,  the  impression  is  incomplete ;  a  deaf  man  misses 
many  striking  details  at  a  fire.  The  writer  must  appeal  to 
all  the  senses  that  he  used  in  obtaining  his  impression  of  a 
scene. 


90  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

The  Tools. — The  tools  of  description  are  simply  details 
presented  through  words  and  sentences.  The  latter  are 
quite  as  important  as  the  former.  (1)  The  nouns  must 
be  exact,  concrete,  and  specific,  so  as  to  express  exactly 
what  the  observer  saw.  (2)  The  adjectives,  while  being 
used  sparingly,  must  give  exactly  the  right  color  and  tone. 
(3)  Verbs  must  do  something  besides  completing  the  gram- 
mar— they  must  supply  action.  Unless  they  are  active  and 
vivid,  the  picture  will  be  lifeless.  (4)  Above  all,  these 
tools  must  be  used  sparingly ;  the  description  must  be  con- 
cise and  to  the  point.  A  few  bold  strokes  are  much  better 
than  a  dreary  catalogue  of  facts.  If  -"he  striking  details 
have  been  selected,  a  few  of  them,  plus  the  reader's 
imagination,  will  put  the  picture  together.  The  more 
rapidly  the  picture  is  drawn,  the  more  the  reader  will  be 
able  to  see  it  in  its  entirety  before  any  part  of  it  has  been 
forgotten. 

EXERCISES  X 
Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  try  its  suggestions  on  an 
interesting  scene  you  have  witnessed  recently.  Also 
analyze  the  appearance  of  the  finest  building  in  the  city 
with  a  view  to  describing  it.  Prepare  notes  for  oral 
discussion  in  class. 

Tuesday 

1.  Prepare  for  an  oral  composition  in  class  on  one  of  these 

subjects : 

(a)  A  description  of  the  scene  in  front  of  a  school 
building  at  time  of  dismissal,  as  seen  by  a  kindly 
old  man  walking  along  the  other  side  of  the  street. 
Or  the  same  scene  as  viewed  by  an  out-of-town 
visitor  standing  at  the  window  of  the  building. 

(h)  Description  of  the  scene  presented  at  an  exciting 
moment  in  a  football  game. 


WRITING  A  DESCRIPTION  91 

Wednesday 

1.  Write  before  class  a  300-word  description  of  the  crowd 
at  the  railroad  station  when  an  important  train  arrives 
from  any  particular  point  of  view  that  you  may  choose. 

2.  In  class,  several  students  will  write  the  first  parts  of 
their  articles  on  the  board  and  others  will  discuss  the 
effectiveness  of  the  words  and  constructions  used  in 
them. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

City  News  Sources 

If  a  man  jails  of  a  street  car  in  the  outskirts  of  the  city, 
how  can  the  city  editor  be  sure  that  he  will  be  informed 
promptly  through  his  runs  of  news  sources?  He  knows  that 
the  event  will  be  recorded  at  once  in  the  police  station  or 
headquarters,  in  the  hospital  where  the  man  is  cared  for,  and, 
if  he  is  killed,  in  the  coroner's  office.  //  Mr.  Jones'  chimney 
sets  the  roof  afire  9  The  fire  department  has  a  report  on  the 
cause,  damage,  insurance,  and  other  facts  at  once,  for  this 
information  is  obtained  before  the  trucks  leave  the  scene.  If 
a  man  is  planning  to  build  an  office  building?  The  first  hint 
is  a  record  in  the  register  of  deeds  office  announcing  his 
purchase  of  land,  and  another  is  the  issuance  of  a  permit 
by  the  city  building  commissioner.  So  on  through  all  city 
events;  most  of  them  are  recorded  in  regular  news  sources. 
For  city  news  the  police,  the  fire  headquarters,  health  depart- 
ment, city  clerk,  mayor's  office,  magistrates'  courts,  building 
inspector,  various  boards  and  committees  of  the  city  council, 
Associated  Charities,  Board  of  Trade  or  similar  body,  and 
the  hotels  are  among  the  principal  sources.  In  the  county 
court  house  the  coroner,  register  of  deeds,  county  clerk, 
probate  office,  and  others  are  regular  record  keepers.  In  the 
state  capitol,  the  state  treasurer,  secretary  of  state,  and  many 
boards,    bureaus,    and    commissions    gather    other    kinds    of 


92  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

records  and  news.     Just  what  records  each  keeps  we  shall 
learn  in  our  weekly  Friday  study. 

1.  Examine  each  local  story  in  one  issue  of  a  newspaper 
to  learn  the  source  of  the  original  information. 

2.  After  discovering  the  source,  determine  what  persons 
were  interviewed  by  the  reporter  in  obtaining  the  facts. 

3.  WTiat  proportion  of  the  news  items  originated  in  the 
courts  or  police  stations? 

4.  How  many  came  from  the  city  hall?  How  many  from 
philanthropic  organizations  ? 

5.  Do  you  find  an  article  that  you  think  might  be  improved 
by  additional  interviewing?    How? 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  important  executive  and  adminis- 
trative officers  in  the  government  of  your  state.  "Which 
are  elective  and  which  appointive?  When  is  election 
held?  Name  the  present  officers.  To  what  political 
party  does  each  belong?  What  are  the  duties  of  each? 
(Get  data  from  state  blue  book.) 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test  and  oral  discussion.  In 
what  connection  have  any  of  these  officers  appeared  in 
the  news  recently  ?  Tell  all  you  know  about  the  present 
governor.  AYhat  are  the  large  problems  in  your  state 
government  at  present? 


CHAPTER  XI 
USE  OF  WORDS 

Because  description  is  primarily  ^'picture-writing,"  it 
has  shown  us  the  importance  of  careful  selection  of  the 
exact  words  which  present  the  picture  in  the  quickest  and 
clearest  way.  Before  we  go  on  to  the  types  of  articles  in 
which  the  newspaper  writer  combines  description  with 
narration  or  exj)osition,  it  will  be  well  for  us  to  make  a 
brief  study  of  word  usage. 

But  this  study  of  words,  like  the  study  of  sentences  and 
other  tools  of  writing,  may  best  be  carried  on  through 
revision  of  articles  already  written.  Otherwise  it  may  lead 
us  to  think  too  much  of  our  ''style."  If  journalistic  writ- 
ing is  mainly  relating  on  paper  the  facts  concerning  an 
interesting  current  topic,  language  is  but  the  means  of 
expression — a  set  of  tools.  "Style"  and  "technique"  in 
the  use  of  these  tools  will  come  only  after  practice  in 
expressing  our  thoughts.  Style  cannot  be  forced;  it  is  a 
reflection  of  a  manner  of  thinking,  rather  than  a  juggling 
of  words.  The  problem  before  a  young  writer  is  first  to 
decide  what  to  tell  his  reader  and  then  to  tell  it  in  the 
simplest,  most  straightforward  way.  The  telling,  even 
though  on  paper,  should  be  as  simple  as  if  he  were  talking. 
Unless  he  is  more  interested  in  what  he  has  to  say  than  in 
how  he  says  it,  his  writing  is  likely  to  be  stilted,  affected, 
empty-wordy.  The  study  of  tools  is  necessary,  but,  to 
keep  it  in  its  proper  place,  it  should  be  made  after  the 

93 


94  JOURNALISTIC   WRITING 

writing  is  done.  Write  what  you  have  to  say,  just  as  it 
comes  to  you ;  then  go  over  it  in  detail  and  polish  it.  Study 
the  structure  of  every  sentence  and  the  value  of  every  word, 
trying  to  substitute  a  better  word  or  a  clearer,  more  force- 
ful structure. 

Since'  conciseness  is  one  of  the  chief  aims  in  modern 
writing,  journalistic  writers  try  to  present  their  subject 
matter  in  the  fewest  possible  words,  testing  the  value  of 
every  one  and  trying  to  eliminate  useless  words.  The  ideal 
may  be  put  as  the  French  novelist,  Flaubert,  expressed  it 
to  the  French  short-story  writer,  Guy  de  Maupassant : 

Whatever,  ong  wishes  to  say,  there  is  only  one  noun  to 
express  it,  only  one  verb  to  give  it  life,  only  one  adjective  to 
qualify  it.  Search,  then,  till  that  noun,  that  verb,  that 
adjective  are  discovered ;  never  be  content  with  "very  nearly" ; 
never  have  recourse  to  tricks,  however  happy,  or  to  buf- 
fooneries of  language,  to  avoid  a  difficulty.  This  is  the  way 
to  become  original. 

This  precept  may  be  put  into  practice  by  studying  each 
particular  word  to  see  if  it  is  the  best  one. 

Nouns. — Since  the  noun  contains  the  vital  part  of  the 
idea,  it  must  be  exactly  the  right  noun  to  express  the  idea. 
It  must  give  exactly  the  meaning  which  the  writer  wishes 
to  convey,  both  in  denotation  and  connotation.  For  ex- 
ample, the  following  nouns  all  mean  about  the  same  thing 
— "si  place  to  live" — but  ordinarily  only  one  is  the  right 
one  for  a  particular  place :  Home,  house,  abode,  residence, 
domicile,  dwelling,  hearths  In  the  same  way,  there  are 
many  nouns  for  almost  every  idea,  but  each  has  its  own 
shade  of  meaning,  and  the  writer  takes  care  to  select  the 
exact  noun. 

1.  There  is  also  a  choice  between  general  nouns,  which 


USE  OF  WORDS  95 

have  a  wide  range  of  meanings,  and  specific  nouns,  which 
pin  the  meaning  down  to  a  definite  idea.  You  say,  ''A 
man  appeared."  Was  the  man  a  lawyer,  doctor,  beggar, 
thief,  or  of  what  profession?  Was  he  a  husband,  father, 
brother,  nephew,  son,  friend,  uncle,  or  what  relation? 
Was  he  a  gentleman,  brute,  weakling,  coward,  bully,  or  of 
what  nature  ?  Was  he  scholar,  idiot,  lunatic,  genius,  or  of 
what  mental  ability  ?  Was  he  giant,  dwarf,  athlete,  in- 
valid, or  of  what  physical  character  ?  And  so  on.  Each  of 
these  nouns  may  be  a  synonym  of  the  general  word,  ^^a 
man/'  but  only  one  or  two  exactly  apply  to  the  man  in 
question.     They  are  therefore  more  specific. 

2.  Some  nouns  are  abstract  and  others  are  concrete. 
The  abstract  noun  signifies  a  broad  general  idea,  while  the 
concrete  noun  signifies  a  particular  example  of  that  idea. 
^'Community  welfare"  is  an  abstract  idea  much  in  vogue  in 
this  generation;  ^'public  recreation"  is  a  branch  of  com- 
munity welfare;  ^'playgrounds"  are  a  form  of  public 
recreation ;  ^'Fairchild  Park"  is  a  playground.  This  park 
is  therefore  a  concrete  expression  of  the  abstract  idea  of 
community  welfare.  In  the  same  way,  almost  every 
abstract  idea  can  be  expressed  in  terms  of  a  concrete 
example,  and  the  concrete  example  is  usually  easier  to 
grasp  and  visualize. 

3.  Certain  nouns,  while  specific  and  concrete,  are 
learned;  others  are  common  to  the  vocabulary  of  the  person 
of  least  education.  ^'Cinematograph"  is  the  more  learned 
name  of  the  moving  picture ;  a  ''concatenation"  is  simply  a 
series;  "docents"  are  teachers;  "imperturbable"  is  calm; 
a  "coadjutor"  is  an  assistant ;  "inspissation"  means  thick- 
ening, and  "induration"  means  hardening.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  point  out  the  journalist's  choice  when  he  is 


96  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

writing  for  educated  and  uneducated  alike.  For  the  same 
reasons,  when  there  is  a  choice,  he  prefers  Anglo-Saxon 
words  to  those  of  Latin  or  Greek  derivation ;  for  example, 
^'begin"  for  ''commence,"  'fearful"  for  ^'lachrymose,'' 
^'arouse"  for  "stimulate."  The  existence  of  these  words 
adds  richness  to  our  language,  but  the  journalist  uses  his 
dictionary  to  seek  simpler,  rather  than  more  learned,  words. 

4.  Many  nouns  must  be  classed  as  slangy  or  colloquial, 
because  they  are  not  legitimate  parts  of  the  English  lan- 
guage. These  are  being  invented  daily  and  most  of  them 
are  soon  discarded.  Others  of  the  same  class  are  legitimate 
English  words  taken  out  of  their  customary  meaning;  for 
example,  "to  stage  a  game,"  "dope"  for  opinion,  "bluif"  for 
pretense,  "punch,"  "bunch,"  "wise"  (as  a  verb),  "dip" 
(as  a  noim),  "arrive,"  "slam."  Whether  to  use  these 
words  is  a  question  that  each  writer  must  answer  for  him- 
self. Usually  there  is  a  good  English  word  that  expresses 
the  idea  more  clearly  than  the  slang.  The  slang  or  col- 
loquialism is  rarely  more  specific  and  therefore  better.  It 
is  well  to  avoid  slang  except  when  no  other  English  word 
expresses  the  idea  so  well. 

Nouns  might  be  classified  and  discussed  fully  from  their 
other  aspects.  It  is  more  profitable,  however,  for  each 
writer  to  do  that  for  himself.  A  little  thought  will  indicate 
that  the  English  language  offers  a  great  choice  of  words 
for  every  idea,  and  the  writer's  work  is  to  find  the  exact 
novm  he  needs — the  most  definite,  specific,  and  concrete 
expression  of  his  idea. 

Adjectives. — Since  adjectives  are  used  merely  to  add  to 
or  to  qualify  the  picture  presented  by  the  noun,  they  should 
be  studied  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  the  noims.  And  they 
must  be  studied  ivith  the  nomis. 


USE  OF  WORDS  97 

1.  When  conciseness  is  the  aim  and  every  line  of  space 
is  precious,  it  is  often  necessary  to  save  the  use  of  the  ad- 
jective by  selecting  a  noun  that  contains  the  qualification. 
Eor  example,  ''a  scholar"  means  almost  the  same  as  ^^a 
learned  man."  If  the  writer  takes  care  to  select  just  the 
adjective  he  needs,  furthermore,  he  can  make  one  adjective 
do  the  work  of  several. 

2.  In  general,  it  is  well  to  avoid  piling  up  several 
adjectives  together.  For  instance,  one  writer  may  say, 
^^It  was  a  misty,  hazy  day,"  or  ''The  process  is  wasteful 
and  inefficient."  Why  not  select  the  better  adjective  and 
discard  the  other  ? 

3.  In  journalistic  writing  certain  other  considerations 
regarding  adjectives  hold  good.  The  chief  one  is  the  avoid- 
ance, as  far  as  possible,  of  comparative  and  superlative 
adjectives.  The  reason  is  that  such  writing  is  concerned 
entirely  with  facts,  and  the  writer  tries  to  avoid  comment 
on  the  facts.  Comparative  and  superlatives  are  in  them- 
selves comments.  When  a  writer  says  that  a  thing  is 
''more  than"  or  "the  most,"  he  is  usually  expressing,  not 
a  fact,  but  his  opinion.  Occasionally  the  comparison  is 
warranted  and  needed,  but  ordinarily  the  writer's  knowl- 
edge and  experience  are  too  limited  for  such  qualifications. 

Verbs — Flaubert  said  that  the  verb  is  needed  "to  give 
it  life."  Many  writers  overlook  this  essential.  Most  of 
their  verbs  simply  complete  the  grammatical  construction 
of  their  sentences.  The  reason  is  that  the  writers  do  not 
stop  to  find  the  exact  verb.  Vividness  is  made  of  action, 
and  the  major  portion  of  the  action  must  be  expressed  in 
verbs.  Many  writers  are  content  to  use  a  certain  set  of 
common  verlDs,  such  as  "sit,"  "walk,"  "talk,"  "look,"— 
verbs  without  vividness.     Any  of  them  has  a  dozen  vivid 


98  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

synonyms  which  not  only  express  the  idea  but  also  give 
a  picture  of  the  action.  Instead  of  ^Svalk/'  for  example, 
try  '^stride/'  '^stagger,"  '^swagger/'  '^saunter/'  ^'loiter," 
^^promenade/'  ^'strut,"  "stalk/'  or  '^ramble."  Each  con- 
tains a.  picture  as  well  as  a  movement. 

Since  verbs  are  used  to  give  life  and  action,  many  of 
them  must  be  active  in  voice.  It  would  seem  unnecessary 
to  mention  this,  but  an  analysis  of  almost  any  piece  of 
writing  will  show  that  more  than  half  the  verbs  are  passive 
in  voice.  In  such  writing  the  mere  change  from  passive 
to  active  immediately  increases  the  vividness.  The  passive 
verb  expresses  reversed  action — the  receiver  before  the 
giver,  the  victim  before  the  actor. 

Other  Parts  of  Speech — Similar  study  may  be  devoted 
to  all  kinds  of  words.  The  aim  should  be  exactness,  defi- 
niteness,  and  conciseness.  Xo  word  should  be  used  that 
is  not  absolutely  essential  to  the  thought,  and  every  thought 
should  be  expressed  with  as  few  words  as  possible.  Since 
style  is  but  a  combination  of  words,  a  study  of  individual 
words  will  do  much  to  improve  one's  style. 

Word  Diet — One  of  the  most  effective  ways  of  combat- 
ing the  evil  of  trite  and  over-used  words  is  to  undertake 
a  'Svord  diet,"  barring  each  of  the  most  serious  offenders 
for  a  week,  perhaps,  and  thereby  forcing  the  development 
of  synonyms.  If  one  Avord  is  barred  each  week  throughout 
the  school  year,  about  thirty  or  thirty-five  words  will  be 
conquered,  and  the  diet  will  be  most  effective  if  the  entire 
class  bars  the  same  word  each  week.  In  newspaper  writing 
one  might  well  "diet"  on  the  following:  "to  stage,"  "ac- 
cording to,"  "there"  (as  sentence  or  clause  beginning), 
"stated,"  "so"  (as  clause  beginning),  "story,"  "very," 
"feature,"  and  similar  words.     The  exercise  may  be  ex- 


USE  OF  WORDS  99 

tended  to  faulty  expressions,  such  as  dangling  participles, 
faulty  subordination,  superlatives,  and  split  infinitives. 

EXERCISES  XI 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  select  for  study  a  represen- 
tative article  or  editorial  in  a  newspaper  and  bring  it 
to  class.  Underscore  all  words  for  which  you  can  sub- 
stitute more  effective  synonyms.  Know  the  meaning 
and  derivation  of  every  word  in  the  article  so  that  you 
can  explain  all  references. 

Tuesdaij 

1.  Study  the  effect  in  your  city  of  some  event  of  national 
interest  you  have  read  about  in  a  recent  newspaper;  be 
prepared  to  write  in  class  an  article  explaining  this  effect. 

2.  Be  prepared  to  write  in  class  an  article  narrating  the 
most  thrilling  adventure  you  have  ever  experienced.  Or, 
present  with  descriptions  your  idea  of  the  best  public 
celebration  of  the  next  holiday. 

Wednesday 

1.  Make  a  study  of  each  word  in  the  article  you  wrote 
yesterday  and  try  to  substitute  other  words  that  will 
save  space  or  make  the  article  more  interesting.  The 
teacher  will  tell  you  how  to  use  a  thesaurus  or  book  of 
synonyms. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

The  TelegTaph  Editor 

News  handled  by  the  telegraph  editor — which  includes 
practically  everything  from  outside  the  home  city — may 
usually  be  distinguished  by  a  dateline,  including  the  city  in 
which  the  event  occurred,  printed  in  the  first  line.  The  editor 
obtains  the  material  in  general  from  two  agencies:  (1)  a 
press  association,  the  operation  of  which  we  shall  study  later; 


100  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

(2)  special  correspondents,  many  or  few,  as  the  newspaper's 
resources  afford.  The  correspondents  work  under  the  tele- 
graph editor  just  as  reporters  work  under  the  city  editor, 
except  that  they  are  in  other  cities  and  must  be  directed  by 
mail,  telegraph,  or  telephone.  Each  correspondent,  who  is 
often  connected  with  a  newspaper  in  his  own  city,  covers  his 
field  with  a  view  to  finding  news  that  will  interest  readers 
in  the  city  Avhere  his  material  is  to  be  published.  Usually 
he  sends  in  his  material  by  mail  on  certain  trains,  but,  when 
important  news  breaks  just  before  edition  time,  he  resorts 
to  telephone  or  telegraph.  In  the  latter  case,  before  sending 
the  story,  he  usually  sends  a  "query"  to  his  telegraph  editor, 
perhaps  as  follows:  "Two  killed  in  building  collapse — 150," 
meaning  that  he  can  send  150  words  on  the  event,  if  it  is 
desired.  Besides  trusting  to  the  initiative  of  his  cor- 
respondents, the  telegraph  editor  sends  them  special  assign- 
ments for  special  news  and  sometimes  sends  a  special  man. 
The  correspondent  is  paid  "space  rates"  for  the  space  filled 
by  his  material,  on  the  basis  of  from  $5  to  $8  a  column  or 
from  15  to  35  cents  an  inch.  Each  month  he  clips  his  articles 
and  pastes  them  into  a  "string"  for  the  telegraph  editor  to 
measure  for  payment. 

1.  What  proportion  of  the  stories  in  one  issue  of  your 
newspaper  are  from  outside  the  city,  as  indicated  by 
datelines  ? 

2.  How  many  are  marked  "special"?  From  what  cities 
do  they  come? 

3.  How  many  states  and  foreign  countries  are  represented 
in  the  datelines  in  one  issue? 

4.  What  cities  supply  the  most  articles?    "V\Tiy? 

5.  Does  the  telegraph  editor  follow  the  same  style  of  edit- 
ing and  headlines  as  the  city  editor? 

6.  Which  does  the  paper  feature  on  the  front  page,  city 
or  telegraph  news? 


U^E  OF  WOUDS  101 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  What  special  boards  or  commissions  are  there  in  the 
state  government  (see  bhie  book)  ?  What  are  the  powers 
and  duties  of  each?  How  long  has  each  been  in  ex- 
istence? How  are  its  members  chosen?  Add  to  the 
list  the  name  of  the  chairman,  president,  or  secretary 
of  each. 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test  and  oral  discussion.  What 
is  the  relation  between  each  of  these  boards  and  your 
city?  Has  any  been  in  the  news  recently?  Other  cur- 
rent news. 


CHAPTER  XII 
EXPOSITION 

Unlike  description,  exposition  has  a  definite  place  in 
journalistic  writing.  So  many  things  in  the  world  are 
to  be  explained  that  much  exposition  is  written  in  the 
magazines  and  newspapers. 

What  are  some  of  these  things  ?  There  are  many  classes 
of  them,  and  each  class  requires  a  different  kind  of  expo- 
sition, different  in  nature  although  not  in  method.  (1) 
Every  day  brings  new  inventions,  devices,  and  improve- 
ments that  must  be  explained  to  the  public.  (2)  Xew 
ways  of  doing  things,  new  plans  and  new  methods  that 
appear  constantly  must  be  made  clear.  (3)  When  new 
laws,  new  court  decisions,  new  theories  of  ethics,  new 
dogmas  are  announced,  their  principles  must  be  expounded. 
(4)  Xew  books,  pamphlets,  and  other  publications  require 
reviews,  or  expositions,  of  their  contents.  In  other  words, 
exposition  is  the  process  of  telling  how  these  things  work, 
how  they  are  done,  what  they  involve,  and  what  they 
contain. 

This  process  of  explaining,  though  it,  too,  is  concerned 
with  facts  and  details,  differs  from  description  in  several 
ways.  (1)  Description  is  concerned  with  a  particular 
picture  or  object,  while  exposition  is  ordinarily  concerned 
with  an  entire  class  of  things.  (2)  Description  tells  only 
how  a  thing  looks,  whereas  exposition  has  the  deeper  pur- 
pose of  telling  what  it  is  made  of  and  how  it  works.     (3) 

102 


EXPOSITION 


103 


Description  presents  a  picture  or  an  image,  whereas  ex- 
position presents  an  explanation  or  an  understanding. 
With  this  idea  in  mind,  it  is  well  to  analyze  a  few  expo- 
sitions, before  attempting  one,  to  see  how  thej  are  done. 

Exposition  of  a  Structure. — This  kind  of  exposition  is 
concerned  with  explaining  the  structure  of  a  machine  or 
device  to  tell  how  it  works.  It  explains  the  operation  of 
a  class  or  kind  of  machine  rather  than  of  one  machine.  If 
the  writer  were  to  describe  an  automobile,  he  would  select 
a  particular  car  and  tell  how  it  looks — its  size,  color,  riding 
quality,  and  general  appearance.  If  he  were  to  write  an 
exposition  of  the  automobile,  he  would  discuss  automobiles 
as  a  particular  kind  of  mechanical  device  and  tell  how 
they  operate,  what  makes  them  go  and  so  on.  This  would 
necessitate  explaining  the  construction  and  operation  of 
the  gasoline  engine,  carburetor,  ignition  system,  transmis- 
sion, differential  gear,  and  other  parts,  The  writer  prob- 
ably would  not  mention  the  color,  for  that  is  not  an  essen- 
tial factor,  but  what  he  would  say  would  be  true  of  all 
gasoline  automobiles.  His  process,  furthermore,  would  be 
to  take  up  each  part  separately  and  explain  it  by  itself, 
and  then  to  put  the  whole  thing  together.  Here  is  a  very 
brief  example  of  such  an  exposition : 


The  principle  of  a  piano-player  is  evi- 
dent in  the  fact  that  it  is  necessary  to 
keep  pumping  the  pedals  to  make  the 
machine  play.  It  is  run  by  compressed 
air,  and  the  pedals  operate  pumps,  or 
bellows,  to  supply  the  compressed  air  to 
operate  various  parts  of  the  player.  That 
is  why  it  wheezes  when  the  pedaling  stops 
and  the  air  supply  runs  down. 

The  winding,  or  turning,  of  the  per- 
forated  paper  roll   is   done  by   a  small 


104 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


motor  that  is  run  by  compressed  air  from 
the  bellows.  The  keys  are  struck  by  felt- 
covered  hammers  which  are  operated  by 
compressed  air  from  the  pedals  and  bel- 
lows. To  strike  a  key,  some  of  the  com- 
pressed air  must  be  allowed  to  escape, 
and  that  is  why  one  must  pump  harder 
for  a  selection  that  has  many  crashing 
chords  than  for  a  simj^le  melody  that  uses 
fewer  keys  and  notes. 

The  mechanism  that  causes  the  ham- 
mers to  strike  the  keys  is  controlled  by 
the  narrow  piece  of  wood  over  which  the 
paper  roll  passes.  What  appears  to  be 
a  long  horizontal  slit  in  this  piece  of 
wood  is  really  a  row  of  small  slits,  end 
to  end.  Among  them,  there  is  a  slit  or 
opening  for  every  key  on  the  i^iano.  Be- 
hind the  strip  of  wood,  each  of  the  small 
slits  is  connected  with  a  small  rubber  tube 
Uiat  leads  to  the  plunger  and  hammer 
for  a  certain  key. 

When  the  piano-player  is"  running,  the 
pedal-bellows  pump  all  the  tubes  full  of 
air.  When  the  holes  in  the  music  roll 
come  along,  then,  they  allow  the  air  to 
escape  through  certain  slits,  and  the  es- 
caping air  causes  the  corresponding 
plunger  and  hammer  to  strike  a  key  on 
the  piano. 

While  the  modulating  and  shading  de- 
vices differ  on  "various  machines,  the  speed 
lever  usually  operates  a  brake  or  throttle 
on  the  air-motor  which  winds  the  roll. 
The  loud-and-soft  lever  may  control  the 
amount  of  air  in  the  tubes,  or  it  may 
operate  the  usual  pedals  of  the  piano. 

Exposition  of  a  Process. — In  this  kind  of  exposition  the 
writer  is  concerned  with  a  method  of  doing  something. 
He  explains  how  sugar  is  made  from  heets,  how  blood  cir- 


EXPOSITION 


105 


culates  tliroiTgh  the  human  body,  how  chocolate  fudge 
candy  is  made,  how  a  siege  gmi  is  aimed,  how  a  moving 
picture  thrill  is  created.  Sometimes  his  purpose  is  to  tell 
how  it  is  done;  at  times  he  aims  to  tell  how  to  do  it.  His 
method  is  to  divide  the  process  into  its  logical  steps  and  to 
explain  each  step  in  detail.  This  may  involve  explaining 
the  structure  of  some  of  the  machines  or  devices  involved ; 
it  may  even  involve  expounding  the  principle  upon  which 
the  process  is  based,  as  in  this  much  condensed  example: 


How  does  ammonia  make  artificial  ice? 

By  evaporating.  Because  of  its  latent 
heat,  the  mere  vaporizing  of  ammonia 
freezes  anything  near  it.  But  to  under- 
stand the  process,  you  must  know  what 
latent  heat  is. 

Did  you  ever  notice  that  when  gasoline 
evaporates  on  your  hand,  it  feels  very 
cold?  That  is  evidence  of  the  latent  heat 
of  evaporation.  Did  you  ever  notice  that 
ice  will  not  freeze  cream  in  the  ice-cream 
freezer  until  you  add  salt  to  melt  the  ice? 
More  evidence  of  latent  heat.  It  is  latent 
heat,  also,  that  makes  a  steam-heating 
system  work — the  latent  heat  of  con- 
densing vapor. 

It  is  one  of  the  interesting  laws  of 
nature  that,  whereas  so  many  heat  units 
are  needed  to  raise  the  temperature  of 
a  pan  of  water  from  zero  to  the  boiling 
point,  some  more  units  are  needed  to  turn 
it  into  steam — which  still  has  the  same 
temperature  as  the  boiling  water,  212 
degrees.  The  last  units  that  make  the 
steam  are  latent  heat,  and  the  same  units 
of  latent  heat  come  out  again  when  the 
steam  condenses  into  water  in  a  steam 
radiator.  In  the  same  way,  when  water 
freezes,  it  gives  off  just  the  same  latent. 


106 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


or  extra,  heat  that  is  needed  to  melt  ice; 
in  an  ice-cream  freezer  the  heat  needed 
to  molt  the  ice  is  taken  out  of  the  cream, 
freezing  it.  Almost  all  substances  evi- 
dence this  law  of  latent  heat  when  pass- 
ing from  solid  to  liquid  or  to  gaseous 
state — and  back  again — ^but  some  sub- 
stances take  on  and  give  off  more  latent 
heat  than  others. 

Ammonia  is  used  for  ice-making  be- 
cause it  handles  much  latent  heat.  Al- 
though it  evaporates  readily  at  ordinary- 
temperatures,  heat  is  necessary^  to  enable 
it  to  evaporate,  and  the  ammonia  takes 
this  heat  from  anything  nearby,  thereby 
cooling  or  even  freezing  whatever  is 
nearby. 

In  a  refrigeration  plant  the  ammonia 
is  first  compressed  by  a  pump  into  liquid 
form  and  the  latent  heat  given  off  in  the 
operation  is  carried  away  by  water  run- 
ning over  the  ammonia  pij^es.  It  is  then 
allowed  to  evaporate  in  a  coil  of  pipes 
hung  in  a  tank  of  salt-brine,  which  does 
not  easily  freeze.  The  brine,  thus  cooled 
to  a  very  low  temperature,  runs  through 
pipes  in  the  refrigerating  rooms  or  other 
places  that  are  to  be  cooled.  In  an  ice- 
making  plant,  it  runs  through  pipes  en- 
circling a  tank  of  water  and  freezes  the 
water  into  ice. 


Exposition  of  an  Idea  or  Principle. — This  does  not  in- 
volve telling  how  a  thing  is  done  or  how  a  thing  is  made ; 
it  expounds  an  idea,  with  its  purposes,  causes,  and  possi- 
bilities. In  other  words,  it  attempts  to  tell  what  a  prin- 
ciple means,  to  point  out  its  significance,  to  translate  it. 
When  Congress  passes  a  new  income  tax  law,  the  journalists 
must  tell  whom  it  affects,  how  it  oj^erates^  what  the  various 


EXPOSITION 


107 


rates  will  be,  what  the  total  revenue  will  probably  be,  what 
the  exemptions  are,  and  what  is  the  process  of  collection. 
They  must  tell  also  why  it  was  passed,  what  its  authors 
hope  it  will  do,  and  what  it  signifies  as  a  piece  of  tax  legis- 
lation. When  they  have  finished,  the  reader — to  whom  the 
legal  phraseology  of  the  law  itself  is  almost  meaningless — 
understands  the  law  and  knows  how  it  will  affect  him. 
The  process  is,  as  before,  a  matter  of  dividing  the  sub- 
ject into  its  logical  parts  and  explaining  each.  Here  is 
a  newspaper  example  of  an  exposition  of  the  results  of 
a  law: 


The  practical  advantages  resulting  from 
the  passage  of  "the  migratory  bird 
treaty,"  as  compared  with  the  results  ob- 
tained under  independent  state  laws,  are 
explained  by  Prof.  A.  B.  Smith,  zoologist 
of  White  University,  in  a  recent  article. 

"Before  the  bird  treaty,  some  states  had 
bird  laws  and  enforced  them,  but  others 
were  lacking  in  laws  or  lax  in  using  them. 
Robins  w^ere  formerly  killed  and  offered 
for  sale  in  southern  markets.  A  man  in 
Illinois  might  kill  birds  and  receive  no 
punishment,  while  in  Wisconsin  he  would 
be  fined.  As  long  as  there  was  no  uni- 
formity of  action,  birds  were  not  suffi- 
ciently protected  during  migration.  This 
was  especially  true  of  wild  ducks  and 
geese,  which  spend  the  breeding  season  in 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  then  travel  north 
as  far  as  Canada.  The  treaty  protects 
these  birds  throughout  their  journey,  and 
an  increase  of  ducks"  and  geese  is  the 
result. 

"Fines  imposed  by  the  treaty  are  much 
heavier  in  general  than  state  fines.  A 
six  months'  prison  sentence  is  not  uncom- 


108 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


mon  and  a  fine  of  $50  for  each  bird  killed 
is  often  inflicted. 

''The  treaty  is  not  didactic  in  insisting 
on  unifonn  action,  but  allows  exception. 
For  instance,  the  bobolink,  which  is  not 
a  harmful  bird  in  the  North,  causes  much 
damage  in  rice-producing  states,  such 
as  North  Carolina  and  Arkansas.  The 
farmer  there  is  allowed  to  shoot  the  bird 
to  protect  his  crops.  In  Wisconsin  the 
kingfisher  offers  a  similar  menace  to  the 
fish  hatcheries.  Permits  are  allowed  to 
each  hatchery  separately  to  kill  these 
birds  when  necessary. 

"The  next  movement  that  will  be  under- 
taken for  the  protection  of  our  birds  will 
undoubtedly  be  a  treaty  with  Central  and 
South  America." 


Summary  Exposition — Another  kind  of  exposition  in- 
volves summarizing  a  quantity  of  facts  and  explaining 
them  in  short  space.  Such  an  exposition  must  he  written 
when  the  city  council  issues  its  annual  report,  when  the 
geographical  society  publishes  a  county  history,  when  the 
presidential  candidate  announces  his  platform,  when  a 
new  book  on  horticulture  appears,  or  when  any  other  com- 
pilation of  information,  facts,  or  knowledge  is  announced. 
The  explaining,  or  exposition,  is  a  matter  of  gathering 
together  all  the  facts  and  of  presenting  them  in  shorter 
form  so  that  the  reader  may  obtain  the  gist  of  the  book  or 
pamphlet  w^ithout  reading  it.  The  method  is  to  select  the 
main  points  and  main  divisions  and  to  present  them  with 
sufficient  explanation  to  enable  the  reader  to  understand 
them,  their  relation,  and  their  significance,  as  in  the  fol- 
lowing examples,  both  of  Avhieli  were  published  in  high 
school  newspapers : 


EXPOSITION 


109 


That  the  great  majority  of  the  school 
ehiidi'en  of  the  East  Side  High  School  are 
from  five  to  thirty-three  pounds  under- 
weight is  indicated  by  the  physical  ex- 
aminations of  school  children  that  have 
been  progressing  since  October  under  the 
direction  of  a  nurse  from  the  county 
health  department. 

All  but  three  children  of  the  eighth 
grade  of  Emerson  High  School  are  under- 
weight. All  but  six  are  more  than  five 
l^ounds  underweight.  In  the  seventh 
grade  only  eight  are  less  than  three 
l^ounds  below  the  standard.  The  defi- 
ciency there  runs  from  five  to  thirty-three 
pounds,  and  in  the  eighth  grade  it  ranges 
from  five  to  twenty-seven  pounds. 

At  the  Douglas  Street  School,  wheve  the 
examinations  took  place  in  November,  240 
of  the  312  children  are  below  standard. 
Ten-thirteenths  of  the  entire  enrollment 
are  three  to  twenty  pounds  below  normal; 
164  are  three  to  four  pounds  underweight ; 
73  are  six  or  more  below;  and  three  are 
over  twenty  pounds  underweight.     Etc. 

You  may  not  be  able  to  deposit  $9  in 
a  bank  account  for  yourself  but  you  can 
do  something  that  will  be  of  still  more 
benefit  to  you.  Go  to  school.  Each  day 
in  school  is  worth  $9.  Here  is  the  proof 
based  on  the  wage  scale  of  1913. 

Uneducated  laborers  earned  on  the 
average  of  $500  per  year  for  40  years, 
a  total  of  $20,000.  High  school  graduates 
earned  on  an  average  of  $1,000  per  year 
for  40  years,  or  $40,000.  This  high  school 
education  required  twelve  years  in  school, 
of  180  days  each,  or  2,160  days.  These 
2,160  days  in  school  added  $20,000  to 
the  life  income  or  $9.25  for  each  day 
spent  in  school. 


110  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

So  the  child  that  stays  out  of  school 
for  the  purpose  of  earning  less  than  $9.25 
per  day  is  losing,  not  making  money. 
These  figures  are  the  result  of  investiga- 
tions made  under  the  direction  of  the 
United  States  Board  of  Education.    Etc. 

Other  Kinds  of  Exposition. — There  are  many  othei 
kinds  of  explanation  and  summaries  not  included  in  the 
four  classes  above.  It  is  useless  to  point  out  all  of  them 
here  for  they  are  all  alike  in  purpose  and  method.  They 
all  aim  to  ansv^er  the  question  ''How  ?"  concerning  the  new 
things  in  the  world. 

The  Outline. — From  the  above  discussion  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  outline  plays  a  great  part  in  exposition,  even 
greater  than  in  description  or,  in  fact,  any  other  kind  of 
writing.  Since  exposition  aims  to  create  understanding, 
clearness  is  its  greatest  virtue,  and  it  must  be  done  so  that 
each  part  and  its  relation  to  other  parts  are  evident  to  the 
most  stupid  reader.  To  do  this,  the  writer  must  first  di\ade 
his  material  into  its  logical  parts  and  then  systematically 
put  the  parts  together.  This  involves  the  preparation  of 
an  outline  as  the  first  step  in  exposition,  for  the  outline 
will  not  only  serve  to  guide  the  writing,  but  will  assist  the 
writer  in  clarifying  his  o^vn  ideas.  The  form  of  the  out- 
line is  not  of  great  importance  so  long  as  it  is  compre- 
hensive and  maps  out  the  structure  of  the  entire  exposition. 
The  outline  in  Chapter  V  may  be  used  as  a  model. 

EXERCISES  XII 
Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  be  prepared  to  discuss  the 
effectiveness  of  the  examples  included.  Note  each  word. 
Can  you  improve  any  of  them?  Notice  punctuation. 
Can  you  give  a  reason  for  each  mark? 


EXPOSITION  111 

Tuesday 

1.  Prepare  an  outline  for  oral  presentation  of  one  of  the 
following : 
{a)  An  exposition  of  a  machine  with  which  you  are 

familiar. 
(&)   An  explanation  of  a  manufacturing  process  that 

you  have  seen. 
(c)  An    exposition    expounding    a    recent    ordinance 

passed  in  your  city  or  of  a  new  school  regulation. 
(J)   A  review  or  summary  of  a  recent  report  issued  by 

an  official  body  (to  be  obtained  at  library). 

'Wednesday 

1.  ^Yrite  a  400-word  exposition  of  the  plan  and  arrange- 
ments of  your  home  or  other  building.  In  class,  while 
one  student  reads  his  exposition,  another  will  try  to 
sketch  the  plan  on  the  board. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Press  Associations 

If  each  newspaper  were  dependent  upon  its  own  system 
of  correspondents  for  all  outside  news,,  it  would  need  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  them  scattered  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
to  gather  a  fraction  of  the  telegraph  news  now  published. 
The  quantity  of  such  news  carried  in  even  the  smallest  news- 
paper is  made  possible  only  by  cooperation  through  press 
associations.  That  is,  newspapers  virtually  club  together  and, 
through  associations,  maintain  a  single  system  of  cor- 
respondents to  serve  them  all.  Three  large  press  associations 
now  operating  are  organized  in  different  ways :  (1)  The  Asso- 
ciated Press,  the  oldest,  formerly  served  only  morning  news- 
papers but  now  has  an  afternoon  service;  it  is  a  cooperation 
in  which  between  800  and  900  newspapers  hold  memberships 
or  franchises  and  share  in  the  expense,  besides  supplying  the 
news  of  their  cities.  (2)  The  United  Press  is  a  private 
corporation  which  gathers  news  for  afternoon  and  Sunday 


112  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

morning  newspapers  and  sells  it  on  a  monthly  basis  to  about 
800  papers,  including  many  members  of  the  Associated  Press. 
(3)  The  International  or  Universal  News  Service  is  an  or- 
ganization which  gathers  news  for  the  newspapers  owned  by 
W.  E.  Hearst  and  sells  it  to  certain  other  papers.  Other 
smaller  associations  have  existed  at  various  times.  Members 
or  clients  of  these  associations  receive  the  news  in  one  or 
two  ways:  (1)  by  "leased  wire"  with  a  ^%op"  and  operator 
in  the  office,  receiving  a  continuous  stream  of  news  through- 
out the  day  or  night;  (2)  a  "pony"  service  of  about  5,000 
words  received  by  long  distance  telephone.  The  press  associa- 
tions gather  foreign  news  through  correspondents  abroad  and 
by  exchanging  with  foreign  news-gathering  agencies.  Co- 
operation in  city  news  gathering  is  carried  on  in  New  York, 
Chicago,  and  Pittsburgh,  through  city  press  associations. 

1.  What  press  association  serves  your  newspaper?  Can 
you  distinguish  the  association  news  from  correspondents' 
articles.    How  many  of  each? 

2.  Compare  the  news  articles  in  two  newspapers  of  the 
same  date,  both  of  which  receive  Associated  Press  service. 
Notice  the  different  selection  by  telegraph  editors. 

3.  Compare  the  press  association  news  in  two  newspapers 
of  the  same  date  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

4.  Notice  the  form  in  which  a  national  story  is  handled 
in  all  papers  of  the  same  date  that  are  available  to  you. 

'Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1,  Investigate  your  state's  judicial  system — all  courts 
higher  than  municipal  and  county  courts.  How  many 
members  has  the  state  supreme  court  and  who  is  the 
chief  justice ?  Who  is  the  attorney  general?  How  many 
state  court  circuits  are  there?  In  which  is  your  city 
situated  and  who  is  the  judge?  How  many  federal 
district  courts  are  there  in  the  state  ?  In  which  is  your 
city  and  who  is  the  judge?    What  federal  circuit  court 


EXPOSITION  113 

has  jurisdiction  in  your  state  and  who  is  the  judge? 
(See  state  blue  book  or  newspaper  almanac.) 
In  class,  written  memory  test  and  discussion.  What  is 
the  jurisdiction  of  each  of  these  courts?  What  im- 
portant cases  have  been  discussed  recently?  Why  was 
each  tried  in  the  particular  court? 


CHAPTEE  XIII 
WRITING  AN  EXPOSITION 

Since  clearness  is  the  most  desirable  quality  in  exposi- 
tion, logical  arrangement  and  careful  structure  are  more 
necessarj^  than  in  description  or  narration.  The  writer 
must  explain  the  machine,  process,  or  principle  in  such  a 
way  as  to  make  it  perfectly  understandable  to  any  reader. 
Since  orderly  arrangement  is  the  basis  of  understanding, 
structure  is  of  greater  importance  than  style.  It  is  safe  to 
say  that  a  well-constructed  outline,  consisting  simply  of  a 
series  of  facts  arranged  in  the  proper  order,  will  give  a 
clearer  understanding  of  a  process  than  an  ill-arranged 
exposition  written  in  the  most  polished  English.  In  build- 
ing an  exposition,  therefore,  half  the  work  is  done  when  the 
outline  is  completed. 

Planning. — We  have  already  studied  the  making  of  an 
outline  in  a  brief  way;  we  must  now  recall  that  and  add 
to  it.  The  outline,  as  we  have  considered  it,  is  simply  a 
skeleton  that  represents  graphically  the  division  of  facts 
into  general  groups  and  the  division  of  groups  into  their 
component  parts.  In  an  exposition  outline  the  order  of  the 
groups  plays  an  important  part.  The  writer  must  take 
care  in  deciding  where  to  begin  and  how  to  continue,  for 
he  has  to  build  idea  upon  idea  so  that  they  will  fit  together. 

For  example,  if  you  were  explaining  the  construction 
and  operation  of  an  automobile,  you  might  divide  the  ma- 
terial into  such  groups  as  these :  chassis,  power  plant,  trans- 

114 


WRITING  AN  EXPOSITION  115 

mission  or  drive,  and  body.  Under  chassis,  you  have  the 
frame,  wheels,  support  for  power  plant,  etc. ;  under  power 
plant,  the  motor,  lubrication  system,  cooling  system,  ig- 
nition, etc. ;  under  transmission,  the  clutch,  gear  box,  drive 
shaft,  differential  gear,  etc.  After  dividing  and  sub- 
dividing all  this  material  until  your  outline  contains  every 
detail  in  its  proper  relation,  you  must  decide  what  to  pre- 
sent first — the  chassis  or  the  transmission,  power  plant  or 
body.  (1)  The  exposition  might  be  worked  out  in  the 
order  of  construction ;  the  various  parts  might  be  placed  in 
the  car  in  the  order  in  which  the  car  is  put  together  at  the 
factory.  (2)  The  method  might  be  that  of  beginning  at 
the  front  and  going  back  along  the  frame,  pointing  out 
various  things  on  the  way.  (3)  A  better  method  would  be 
to  begin  at  the  car's  heart,  the  motor,  and  to  follow  the 
various  things  radiating  from  it — transmission,  drive, 
wheels,  then  frame  to  carry  them,  then  body  to  ride  in. 
Any  one  of  these  methods  would  be  satisfactory  if  worked 
out  consistently. 

The  Purpose — In  discussing  this  particular  exposition, 
however,  the  supposition  has  been  that  we  are  explaining 
the  motor  car's  construction — what  it  is  made  of.  Suppose 
that  the  exposition  is  designed  to  tell  a  person  how  to  drive 
a  car ;  the  emphasis  is  then  on  the  operation — how  it  runs. 
This  might  involve  placing  the  reader  in  the  driver's  seat, 
pointing  out  each  lever  and  each  button,  and  telling  what 
happens  when  the  levers  are  manipulated.  In  the  end  the 
reader  would  have  as  clear  an  idea  of  the  structure  of  the 
car,  but  from  an  entirely  different  point  of  view.  It  will 
be  seen,  therefore,  that  there  are  many  different  ways  "of 
building  up  the  facts,  and  that  the  selection  depends  upon 
the  point  of  view  and  purpose.     The  exposition  of  a  new 


116  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

law  might  be  written  (1)  in  one  order  for  lawyers,  (2)  in 
another  for  a  citizen  who  must  live  under  the  law,  (3)  in 
another  for  foreigners  who  may  be  studying  our  laws  in 
comparison  with  their  own,  and  (4)  in  yet  another  for  the 
'legislators  who  make  laws.  In  other  words,  after  the 
material  has  been  divided  up  in  the  outline,  the  writer 
must  have  a  definite  purpose  and  a  definite  kind  of  reader 
in  mind. 

The    Topic    Sentence In   well-arranged    expositions 

every  main  part  and  subordinate  part  contains  a  statement 
that  sums  up  that  particular  part.  This  statement  is  called 
the  topic  sentence.  It  has  two  purposes:  (1)  to  sum  up 
the  phase  of  the  subject  under  discussion,  and  (2)  to  test 
the  effectiveness  of  the  explanation.  For  example,  in  the 
exposition  of  an  automobile,  the  paragraph  on  the  car- 
buretor would  contain  a  topic  sentence  which  says  that 
*'the  carburetor  is  a  device  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  com- 
bine liquid  gasoline  and  air  to  form  an  explosive  gas.'' 
The  sentence  sums  up  the  whole  subject ;  whatever  details 
are  added  simply  explain  this  statement.  If,  however,  cer- 
tain material  creeps  into  the  paragraph  that  is  not  an 
explanation  of  this  sentence — for  instance,  a  discussion  of 
the  gasoline  pumping  system — this  fact  indicates  that  the 
paragraph  is  not  unified  and  the  exposition  is  becoming 
confused. 

This  topic  sentence,  which  sums  up  each  part  of  the 
exposition,  is  not  only  a  summary;  it  is  a  definition  as 
well.  The  topic  sentence  above  not  only  sums  up  all  phases 
of  the  explanation  of  a  carburetor,  but  defines  it.  The 
Bame  is  true  of  every  topic  sentence.  Since  its  value 
depends  on  how  good  a  definition  it  is,  it  is  well  to  know 
what  constitutes  a  good  definition.     The  scientific  way  of 


WRITING  AN  EXPOSITION  llf 

defining  anything  is  to  place  it  in  a  definite  class  and  then 
to  tell  how  it  differs  from  other  members  of  the  class.  The 
two  elements  are  called  geiius  (class)  and  differentia  (dis- 
tinguishing features).  In  the  above  definition,  the  car- 
buretor is  said  to  be  a  device  (genus)  which  volatilizes 
gasoline  {differentia).  The  motor  car  itself  might  be 
defined  as  a  vehicle  {genus)  propelled  by  a  motor  {differ- 
entia) .  This  scientific  method  of  definition  is  a  good  test 
of  a  topic  sentence. 

Where  in  the  individual  paragraph  shall  we  place  this 
summary  sentence,  if  good  exposition  requires  a  different 
topic  sentence  for  each  division  and  subdivision  of  ma- 
terial, one  for  each  item  on  the  outline  ?  ( 1 )  Some  writers 
begin  with  explanations  and  work  up  to  the  topic  sentence, 
using  it  to  sum  things  up  at  the  end  of  the  paragraph.  (2) 
Others  begin  with  the  summary  or  definition  and  explain 
it  afterward.  The  latter  method  is  the  one  most  often  seen 
in  journalists'  writing ;  such  a  writer  always  puts  his  best 
foot  forward  and  begins  each  paragraph  with  a  summary. 

Proportion — The  amount  of  space  devoted  to  various 
parts  of  the  exposition  has  much  to  do  with  the  emphasis 
which  those  parts  receive.  If  the  writer  spends  twice  as 
much  time  explaining  the  carburetor  as  he  devotes  to  the 
clutch,  his  readers  will  unconsciously  feel  that  the  car- 
buretor is  of  greater  importance.  This  fact  makes  it  neces- 
sary to  allot  space.  If  all  parts  are  of  equal  importance, 
each  should  receive  the  same  amount  of  space.  If  one  is 
of  greater  importance,  it  accordingly  should  be  given  more 
space.  Thus  the  writer  not  only  has  a  sure  way  to  test  the 
emphasis  which  various  parts  are  to  receive,  but  he  is  able 
to  emphasize  certain  elements  by  simply  saying  more  about 
them.    It  is  well  to  plan  the  emphasis  in  advance  by  sys- 


118  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

tematically  dividing  up  the  available  space.  If  the  ex- 
position is  to  be  1,000  words  in  length,  the  wi'iter  may 
divide  the  space  as  he  arranges  his  outline  by  giving  100 
words  to  A,  250  words  to  B,  300  words  to  C,  etc.  Figures 
jotted  on  the  outline  will  guide  him  in  writing. 

Illustrations — Clearness  and  richness  in  exposition  de- 
pend largely  upon  illustrative  material.  If  you  were  to 
eliminate  all  the  illustrations  in  this  chapter  and  leave  only 
the  topic  sentences  and  general  statements,  it  would  be 
much  balder  and  more  uninteresting  than  it  is.  That  is 
because  it  is  difficult  to  become  interested  in  general  state- 
ments ;  the  human  mind  likes  concrete  examples  and  there- 
fore imderstands  them  more  readily.  Writers  take  ad- 
vantage of  this  by  filling  their  expositions  with  examples 
and  comparisons.  Every  general  statement  is  followed  up 
by  an  example  of  it,  not  only  to  make  it  clearer  but  to  keep 
the  reader  interested.  Uninteresting  expositions  can 
always  be  brightened  up  by  the  insertion  of  a  few  ex- 
amples. This  is  particularly  true  in  journalistic  writing. 
Magazine  writers  aim  to  use  as  much  concrete  material  as 
possible,  to  tell  the  stoiy  by  means  of  examples.  They  tell 
the  reader  an  interesting  anecdote  of  a  particular  case; 
then  they  casually  remark  that  this  case  is  but  an  example 
of  the  general  idea  that  they  wish  to  bring  out.  We  read 
their  concrete  stories  with  great  interest,  because  they  tell 
about  a  man  in  a  particular  situation,  and  therefore  we 
understand  the  generality  more  readily.  Journalistic 
writers  consider  illustrations  so  important  that  they  post- 
pone many  of  their  expositions  until  they  have  obtained  a 
true  example  for  each  item  on  the  outline.  Young  writers 
may  readily  enrich  their  expositions  by  following  the  same 
idea. 


WRITING  AN  EXPOSITION  119 

What  has  been  said  above  about  the  building  of  an  ex- 
position has  been  concerned  mainly  with  one  kind  of  expo- 
sition, the  explanation  of  a  structure.  The  same  ideas 
apply  equally  well  to  all  other  kinds  of  exposition. 

EXERCISES  XIII 

M  071  day 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  clip  from  a  newspaper  an 
example  of  exposition  and  prepare  to  discuss  its  effective- 
ness on  the  basis  of  the  points  suggested.  Would  a  new 
outline  improve  it? 

Tuesday 

1.  Write  an  exposition  based  on  one  of  the  outlines  pre- 
pared on  Tuesday  last  week. 

2.  In  class,  analyze  its  structure  to  determine  what  is  its 
point  of  view  and  for  what  kind  of  reader  it  is  intended. 
Other  students  will  suggest  improvements.  How  would 
you  change  it  for  another  point  of  view  or  another 
reader  ? 

Wednesday 

1.  Make  an  outline  for  an  exposition  of  the  courses  of 
study  and  requirements  for  graduation  in  your  school 
designed  to  tell  a  prospective  student  what  he  may  take. 
Keep  within  400  words. 

2.  In  class,  supply  an  example  to  illustrate  each  item  in 
your  exposition.  How  many  of  these  examples  would 
you  use  in  your  exposition,  if  you  w^ere  to  rewrite  it  ? 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Syndicate  Services 

Much  interesting  reading  matter  and  most  pictures  seen 
in  smaller  newspapers  are  purchased  from  syndicates,  which, 
by  selling  the  same  material  to  a  number  of  newspapers, 
reduce  its  cost  to  each.     Such  a  system  enables  small  news- 


120  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

papers  to  publish  better  material  than  their  resources  would 
otherwise  afford.  In  the  smaller  country  weeklies  syndicate 
service  is  seen  in  the  form  of  "ready  prints"  or  '^patent 
insides" ;  that  is,  the  publisher  purchases  his  print  paper  from 
a  syndicate  with  the  inside  pages  already  printed.  Country 
papers  that  do  not  use  this  service  boast  that  they  are  "all 
home  print.''  In  small  daily  newspapers  and  country  weeklies 
may  be  seen  the  use  of  stereotype  plate  or  "boiler  plate"  of 
articles  and  pictures  set  in  type  by  a  syndicate;  this  may 
be  distinguished  by  its  typography.  In  larger  dailies  the 
syndicate  service  consists  of  daily  proofs  of  articles  and  stereo- 
type mats  of  pictures.  Aside  from  these  all-inclusive  syn- 
dicate services,  many  individual  features  of  various  kinds  are 
supplied — news  pictures,  comic  strips,  material  for  special 
departments,  cartoons,  editorials,  biographical  sketches,  short 
stories  and  serial  fiction,  fashion  notes,  architectural  ideas, 
even  entire  Sunday  supplements.  In  the  same  way,  it  is  now 
common  for  any  successful  newspaper  writer,  artist,  or  para- 
grapher  to  syndicate  his  work  to  other  newspapers.  Most 
news  pictures  are  bought  from  photo  syndicates.  It  is  not 
always  easy  to  distinguish  syndicate  material,  except  the  ready 
print  and  plate  variety.  Sometimes  it  is  copyrighted,  labeled, 
or  otherwise  credited.  Often  one  must  merely  conclude  that, 
because  it  is  not  local  news  matter,  or  telegraph  news  matter, 
or  special  articles  obviously  prepared  by  the  staff,  it  is  likely, 
in  a  small  newspaper,  to  be  syndicated  material. 

1.  Study  the  ready  print  inside  pages  of  a  country  weekly. 
Many  newspapers  of  this  class  use  them  and  the  typo- 
graphy will  identify  them.  Notice  the  kind  of  articles, 
pictures,  advertisements. 

2.  In  a  small  daily  or  weekly  newspaper  mark  what  appears 
to  be  stereotype  plate  matter ;  different  typography  and 
headlines  will  identify  it.     Study  the  kind  of  material. 

3.  In  an  average  daily  newspaper  mark  the  material  that 
appears  to  be  syndicated.     List  the  kinds.     How  many 


WRITING  AN  EXPOSITION  121 

photographs  are  syndicated?     Look  for  syndicate  ma- 
terial in  special  departments. 

4.  Is  any  of  the  material  on  the  editorial  page  purchased 
from  other  newspapers — marked  "copyright"?  Other 
material,  credited,  but  not  copyright,  is  probably  clipped 
by  the  exchange  editor. 

5.  Are  any  cartoons  or  drawings  from  other  newspapers? 
Look  for  copyright  or  credit  notice. 

Friday  Accueacy  Exercise 

1.  Study  the  organization  of  the  state  legislature.  How 
many  members  are  there  in  the  assembly,  or  lower 
house?  Who  was  speaker  at  the  last  session?  How 
many  assemblymen  represent  your  county  and  what  are 
their  names?  How  many  members  has  the  state  senate 
or  upper  house  ?  Who  is  speaker  ?  Who  is  senator  from 
your  county?  When  is  the  next  legislative  election; 
when  does  the  legislature  convene? 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test  and  oral  discussion.  Wliat 
do  you  know  about  the  personality,  home  life,  education, 
training,  business,  and  politics  of  your  assemblymen  and 
senator?  If  you  wished  a  state  law  passed,  how  would 
you  go  about  advocating  the  idea  and  obtaining  action? 


CHAPTEE  XIV 
rORM  OF  MANUSCRIPT 

This  is  a  good  time  to  rest  from  the  consideration  of 
rhetorical  methods  long  enongh  to  study  the  form  in  which 
manuscript  should  be  prepared  and  other  similar  problems. 
They  are  more  important  in  journalistic  writing  than  in 
other  composition  because,  as  was  pointed  out  in  Chapter  I, 
the  journalist  is  always  writing  for  a  printer.  Since 
printers  use  the  word  ^^copy"  to  designate  the  manuscript 
which  they  handle,  journalistic  writers  speak  of  their 
manuscript  as  ^'copy."  This  consideration  —  that  the 
writer's  manuscript  should  be  prepared  for  use  as  printer's 
copy — is  the  essence  of  journalistic  writing. 

The  chief  requirement  for  printer's  copy  is  that  it  shall 
be  so  legible  and  easy  to  read  that  the  printer  will  have  no 
excuse  for  making  mistakes  in  setting  it  in  type.  Further- 
more, it  shall  be  in  such  form  as  to  permit  an  editor  to 
correct  and  alter  it  before  he  gives  it  to  the  printer.  To 
this  end,  the  manuscript  should  be  written  in  a  large, 
legible  hand,  or  typewritten.  The  best  paper  to  use  is  soft 
unruled  paper  without  gloss,  cut  in  the  standard  letter  size 
(8%  by  11  inches).  Glossy  paper  is  not  good  because  the 
light  reflected  from  it  hurts  the  eyes ;  ruled  paper  does  not 
accommodate  broad  spacing  between  lines.  The  writer 
should  use  only  one  side  of  the  sheet  so  that  the  copy  may 
be  cut,  or  pasted,  or  divided  into  ^'takes"  (small  pieces  for 
the  printer).     Journalistic  writers  ordinarily  use  a  soft 

122 


FORM  OF  MANUSCRIPT  123 

lead  pencil,  rather  than  a  pen,  because  it  is  best  suited  to  a 
large,  legible  hand  and  is  easier  to  read  by  artificial  light. 

The  Typewriter — Better  than  a  lead  pencil  is  the  type- 
writer because  it  is  more  rapid  and  legible.  In  most 
magazine  and  newspaper  offices  writers  are  required  to 
supply  typewritten  manuscript,  and,  since  dependence  upon 
a  stenographer  is  costly  in  time  and  money,  writers  them- 
selves must  learn  to  operate  the  typewriter.  It  is  well, 
therefore,  for  an  ambitious  young  writer  to  learn  type- 
writing at  once.  At  first,  until  the  use  of  the  machine  has 
been  mastered,  it  will  be  used  simply  in  making  a  final 
copy.  As  soon  as  possible,  however,  the  writer  should  learn 
to  compose  directly  on  the  machine,  since  manipulation  of 
the  keys  will  soon  become  a  habit  like  the  use  of  a  pencil. 

Longhand  Manuscript — Until  the  typewriter  is  mas- 
tered, longhand  manuscript  must  be  prepared  with  great 
care.  The  writer  must  form  the  habit  of  remembering  the 
printer ;  every  word  must  be  so  clear  that  the  printer  can- 
not possibly  misunderstand  or  make  a  mistake.  (1)  There 
is  no  chance  to  slur  over  words  the  spelling  of  which  the 
writer  is  doubtful ;  every  letter  must  stand  out  clear-cut, 
for  the  printer  will  set  it  in  type  just  as  it  is  written.  Mis- 
takes that  are  passed  over  without  thought  in  manuscript 
stand  out  with  striking  prominence  in  type.  (2)  It  is  well 
to  print  proper  names  or  words  of  unusual  spelling  to  avoid 
mistake.  (3)  Periods  and  other  punctuation  points  should 
be  so  evident  that  they  cannot  be  overlooked.  (4)  Since 
"u"  and  "n"  are  readily  confused  in  longhand  manuscript, 
it  is  well,  when  they  may  be  confused,  to  underscore  "u" 
(u)  and  overscore  "n"  (n). 

Space  for  Corrections — The  manuscript  that  we  are 
preparing  now  is  not  for  publication,  but  it  is  well  to  begin 


124  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

to  write  with  that  idea  in  mind.  (1)  One  of  the  first 
principles  is  to  leave  enough  space  between  lines  so  that 
insertions  and  corrections  may  be  written  in.  On  the  type- 
writer, material  should  be  double  or  triple  spaced ;  in  long- 
hand, the  lines  should  be  twice  as  far  apart  as  on  ruled 
paper.     (2)  Broad  margins  should  be  left  on  either  side. 

(3)  Space  should  be  left  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  pages. 

(4)  Paragraphs  should  be  indented  at  least  an  inch. 
Handling  of  Manuscript. — Each  page  of  the  manuscript 

should  be  numbered  and  should  bear  the  writer's  name  or 
some  designation  of  the  article  (as,  ^^Smith — 2''  or  ^'New 
Council — 4")  so  that  the  various  pages  cannot  become  mis- 
placed. The  best  place  for  the  number  is  in  the  upper  left 
corner  of  the  sheet.  Inserted  pages  should  be  designated 
with  a  letter  (as,  4,  5a,  5b,  5c,  6).  The  name  of  the 
writer,  the  date,  and  other  material  required  by  class  prac- 
tice may  conveniently  be  placed  in  the  upper  left  corner  of 
the  first  page.  If  the  manuscript  is  folded  backward  once 
across  the  middle,  the  name  and  the  beginning  of  the  article 
will  be  on  top,  convenient  for  handling.  The  last  page 
should  bear  a  mark  at  the  end  of  the  writing  (such  as 
jj^  ^  )  to  indicate  that  the  article  is  complete. 
^  Accuracy — As  soon  as  the  writer  begins  to  think  of  the 
appearance  of  his  manuscript  in  print,  he  realizes  the  full 
force  of  the  necessity  for  accuracy  in  all  details.  Mis- 
spelled words,  bad  punctuation,  and  bad  grammar  may 
sometimes  be  overlooked  in  manuscript,  but  never  in  print. 
A  misspelled  word  stands  out  like  a  blot  on  the  page  of  a 
book.  Journalistic  writers  therefore  consider  these  details 
of  the  utmost  importance.  They  realize  that  they  have 
no  teacher  to  correct  their  work,  and  they  dread  seeing 
their  misspelling  reproduced  in  thousands  of  printed  copies 


FORM  OF  MANUSCRIPT  125 

and  spread  broadcast  before  the  reading  public  as  an  ex- 
ample of  their  work.  It  is  not  easy  for  a  writer  to  say 
^^What  does  it  matter  ?"  when  he  realizes  that  thousands  of 
readers  are  laughing  at  his  ignorance  and  carelessness.  In 
practicing  journalistic  writing,  therefore,  students  must 
pay  as  much  attention  to  the  accuracy  of  their  spelling, 
punctuation,  and  grammar,  as  to  the  accuracy  of  their 
facts. 

TypogTaphical  Style.— It  is  for  the  same  reason  that 
writers  and  publishers  establish  arbitrary  rules  for  variable 
usages  in  English  writing.  If  the  writer,  for  example, 
capitalizes  ^^autumn"  in  one  sentence  and  does  not  capital- 
ize it  in  the  next,  the  reader  is  sure  to  notice  it ;  if  he  used 
a  period  after  ^^per  cent"  in  one  paragraph  and  does  not  in 
the  next,  the  detail  is  more  noticeable  than  his  statement. 
Either  usage  is  correct,  but  the  writer  must  be  consistent. 
It  isJo,  insure  consistency  and  imiformity  that  newspaper, 
magazine,  and  other  publication  offices  establish  arbitrary 
office  rules  for  the  particular  cases.  The  rules  are  known 
as  typographical  style.  If  they  are  written  down,  the  list 
of  rules  is  called  a  style  sheet  or  style  hooJc.  In  no  two 
offices  are  the  rules  exactly  alike,  but  each  office  follows  its 
own  rules  to  the  letter.  Writers  who  are  not  connected 
with  offices  obtain  the  same  desirable  uniformity  in  their 
writing  by  establishing  rules  of  their  own. 

(1)  One  of  the  doubtful  questions  is  the  use  of  capital 
letters.  There  is  a  different  usage  in  the  capitalization  of 
names  that  designate  seasons  of  the  year,  political  parties, 
religious  denominations,  sections  of  the  country,  points  of 
the  compass,  school  classes,  names  of  political  officers,  and 
many  other  kinds  of  nouns.  There  is  disagreement  in  the 
capitalization  of  the  common  noun  in  composite  names  like 


126  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Northwestern  Railway  Company,  First  National  Bank, 
Chicago  University.  Shall  company,  bank  and  university 
here  be  capitalized?  For  the  sake  of  uniformity  writers 
make  arbitrary  rules  to  cover  these  cases. 

(2)  The  use  of  figures  brings  additional  difficulties, 
since  no  rules  tell  absolutely  when  they  shall  be  used  and 
when  the  numbers  shall  be  spelled  out.  (3)  Although 
abbreviation  is  commonly  avoided,  some  words  must  of 
necessity  be  abbreviated.  Which  ones  ?  (4)  The  mere 
writing  of  dates  (whether  Jan,  11,  1916,  January  17, 
'16, 17  Januajy,  1916,  etc.),  and  (5)  the  form  of  the  street 
address  (whether  435  Grand  street.  No,  435  Grand  Street, 
tJf.35  Grand  St.,  or  435  Grand  st.)  are  mooted  points. 
(6)  The  use  of  quotation  marks  and  certain  uses  of 
punctuation  also  bring  up  problems. 

For  the  sake  of  accuracy  and  uniformity  a  yoimg  writer 
must  notice  these  small  matters  and  develop  rules  to  guide 
him  in  his  writing.  Every  rule,  however,  must  be  based  on 
a  good  reason  and  should  be  consistent  with  his  other  rules. 
If  the  class  or  teacher  has  established  a  set  of  rules  to  be 
followed  in  all  practice  writing,  so  much  the  better.  In 
the  back  of  this  book  there  will  be  found  a  compact  style 
sheet  that  may  be  used  as  the  basis  or  model  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  such  a  list  of  rules. 

EXERCISES  XIV 

Monday 

1.  Study  a  page  in  any  magazine  or  a  column  in  any  news- 
paper to  discover  the  rules  for  capitalization,  quotation, 
use  of  figures,  abbreviations,  and  other  rules  in  force 
in  that  office.  Note  inconsistencies  in  usage.  Note 
variations  from  tlie  stvle  sheet  in  the  back  of  this  book, 
(Part  II,  Chapter  III). 


FORM  OF  MANUSCRIPT  127 

Tuesday 

1.  Study  the  style  sheet  in  the  back  of  this  book.  Learn 
its  usages  by  checking  each  rule  that  is  new  to  you. 
How  many  are  there?  In  class,  the  teacher  will  read 
some  short  items  to  be  written  from  dictation  to  see 
how  well  you  know  this  style. 

^Vednesday 

1.  Write  one  of  the  following: 

(ft)  An  exposition  designed  to  explain  the  game  of 
basketball  (or  any  other  school  sport)  to  a  foreigner 
who  has  never  seen  it  played. 

(&)  An  explanation  of  the  difference  between  associa- 
tion and  intercollegiate  basketball  for  a  student 
who  has  seen  only  one  kind  of  game. 

(c)  An  exposition  explaining  local  motor  traffic  regula- 
tions. 

2.  In  class,  study  the  finished  exposition,  notice  spelling 
of  every  word,  every  punctuation  mark,  and  capital  let- 
ter, and  other  typographical  details  to  test  the  uni- 
formity. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Copyreading 

Students  of  newspapers  are  likely  to  forget  the  work  that 
goes  into  an  article  after  it  is  written  and  before  it  is  printed 
— the  work  of  the  editor  or  copyreader  who  polishes  and 
corrects  the  writer's  work  and  prepares  it  for  printing.  In 
a  newspaper  office  the  copyreaders  work  at  a  table  known  as 
"the  copy  desk"  under  the  direction  of  the  city  editor.  Be- 
sides polishing  the  articles  written  by  reporters,  the  copy- 
reader  must  correct  grammar,  punctuation,  and  spelling,  must 
alter  the  capitalization,  figures,  abbreviations,  and  other  tech- 
nique to  conform  with  the  newspaper's  typographical  style, 
must  correct  or  remove  inaccuracies,  must  be  sure  that  the 


128  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

material  is  not  libelous,  must  change  its  form  so  as  to  em- 
phasize the  news  value  most  effectively — all  this  by  editing 
the  original  copy  without  rewriting  it.  Sometimes  he  reduces 
the  length,  according  to  the  city  editor's  directions.  After 
the  correction  is  completed,  the  copyreader  writes  a  headline 
for  the  article,  writes  in  subheads  between  paragraphs,  puts 
on  the  copy  the  necessary  typographical  directions  for  the 
printer,  and  writes  at  its  head  a  guide-line  or  catch-line, 
(for  example,  "Add  Dartmouth  Game,  Sports")  to  keep  track 
of  its  various  parts  and  to  indicate  where  in  the  paper  it 
should  go.  Copyreaders  work  very  rapidly  and  must  have  an 
exceptional  ability  to  see  errors  and  to  grasp  ideas  so  as  to 
whip  them  into  shape  in  much  less  time  than  it  takes  to  write 
them. 

1.  Count  the  errors  in  spelling,  grammar,  and  punctuation 
on  the  front  page  of  your  newspaper,  disregarding  errors 
that  are  obviously  typographical. 

2.  Notice  the  typographical  style,  comparing  methods  of 
using  capitals,  figures,  etc.,  with  the  style  sheet  in  the 
back  of  this  book. 

3.  Does  the  copy  desk  of  your  newspaper  appear  to  follow 
definite  rules  of  paragraphing?  In  how  many  para- 
graphs is  the  first  line  emphatic  and  interesting  ? 

4.  At  what  intervals  are  subheads  inserted?    Their  form? 

5.  How  many  trite  and  hackneyed  words  or  expressions 
have  the  copyreaders  overlooked?     Supply  synonyms. 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  Study  your  state's  representatives  to  the  federal  govern- 
ment. How  many  does  it  send  to  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives? A\Tiat  is  the  name  of  your  local  Congressman? 
How  many  Senators  does  it  send  ?  What  are  their  names 
and  parties?  Study  federal  representatives  in  your 
state.  Who  is  postmaster  in  your  city?  Eevenue  col- 
lector?    Besides   federal    district   judges,    what   other 


FORM  OF  MANUSCRIPT  129 

federal  representatives  are  there  in  the  state?  (See  blue 
book.) 
2.  In  class,  written  memory  test  and  oral  discussion.  VfhsLt 
do  you  know  about  your  national  representatives  ?  Have 
their  names  been  in  the  newspapers  recently?  Discuss 
other  current  news. 


CHAPTER  XV 
NEWS  NARRATIVES 

Althougli  human  interest  stories,  wliicli  we  studied 
earlier  in  our  course,  are  journalistic  in  character,  they  are 
not  the  most  typical  newspaper  narratives,  because  they 
treat  small  events.  Narratives  of  important  news,  as  seen 
in  modern  newspapers,  are  usually  written  in  a  special 
form.  They  do  not  involve  a  different  kind  of  writing,  but 
they  involve  a  special  structure  which  shows  itself  in  the 
outlining  more  than  in  the  composition.  In  the  human 
interest  story  our  method  was  to  tell  the  story  in  the  most 
natural  way,  usually  the  chronological  order,  because  our 
only  aim  was  to  interest  or  amuse  the  reader.  But  when 
we  write  real  news  narratives  of  significant  events,  we  are 
not  only  trying  to  amuse  the  reader  but  to  inform  him — to 
tell  him  what  is  happening  in  the  world. 

For  Busy  Readers. — This  change  in  purpose  involves  a 
change  in  structure  or  order  in  which  the  facts  are  pre- 
sented. While  making  the  narrative  as  interesting  as  pos- 
sible, we  try  to  tell  the  news  as  quickly  as  we  can.  We 
think  of  our  reader  as  a  very  busy  person  who  is  looking 
through  the  newspaper  to  find  out  what  has  happened  in 
the  past  twenty-four  hours.  We  realize  that  in  the  news- 
paper in  which  our  article  is  to  appear  there  may  be  150 
other  articles,  containing  perhaps  60,000  words  in  all.  Xo 
busy  reader  could  possibly  take  time  to  read  60,000  words 
to  find  out  the  news,  and  yet  we  wish  him  to  get  the  content 

130 


NEWS  NARRATIVES  131 

of  it  all.  If  all  the  150  articles  were  constructed  like  our 
human  interest  stories,  he  would  have  to  read  most  of  the 
60,000  words  to  get  all  the  news ;  at  any  rate,  he  would 
have  to  read  all  of  each  individual  article  to  find  out  what 
it  contained.  If  we  are  to  enable  him  to  get  the  news 
quickly,  we  must  adopt  some  way  of  writing  that  will 
enable  him  to  get  the  content  of  any  article  by  reading  part 
of  it ;  he  may,  of  course,  read  the  rest  of  it  if  he  is  espe- 
cially interested  in  the  subject,  but  he  will  get  the  news 
anyway.  To  accommodate  this  busy  reader  and  suit  news- 
paper narratives  to  his  needs  newspaper  men  have  evolved 
such  a  special  structure  of  narrative.  We  may  call  it  the 
^'news-story  form.'' 

Summary  First — A  little  thought  will  indicate  readily 
how  to  construct  an  article  so  that  a  busy  reader  may  get  its 
content  by  reading  only  part  of  it.  Suppose  that  500 
words  are  needed  to  tell  the  entire  story ;  even  so,  the  con- 
tent, or  gist,  of  the  information  may  easily  be  summed  up 
in  a  sentence.  For  example,  imagine  that  the  United 
States  Senate  spent  an  entire  afternoon  debating  the  final 
reading  of  a  new  tariff  bill  and  finally  passed  it  by  a  vote 
of  60  to  26.  Many  Senators  gave  long  addresses  during  the 
afternoon,  and  much  interesting  material  was  brought  out 
in  the  debate.  A  complete  narrative  of  the  afternoon's 
session  might  fill  two  columns  in  the  newspaper.  But, 
after  all,  the  real  news,  or  gist  of  it,  is  that  the  bill  was 
passed.  That  one  sentence  sums  up  the  entire  story.  If 
the  narrative  were  written  in  logical  order,  as  we  have  been 
writing  human  interest  stories,  the  passage  of  the  bill 
would  be  told  in  the  last  sentence,  and  the  reader  w^ould 
need  to  read  two  columns  to  find  out  whether  the  bill  was 
passed.     The  newspaper  man  says :   "^^liy  not  tell  him  the 


132 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


news — that  the  bill  was  passed — in  the  first  sentence  ?  If 
he  is  especially  interested  in  the  debate,  he  may  read  the 
two  columns,  but  at  any  rate  the  first  sentence  will  tell  him 
what  became  of  the  bill." 

That  is  the  idea  of  the  news-story  form.  The  writer 
puts  the  gist  of  the  article  in  the  first  sentence,  or,  in  other 
words,  he  begins  with  a  summary  of  his  narrative.  After 
that,  he  tells  the  w^hole  story  with  all  its  details  and 
episodes.  In  the  following  narrative  it  wdll  be  noticed  that 
the  narration  really  begins  with  the  second  paragraph,  and 
the  first  paragraph  gives  the  gist  of  the  entire  story : 


Skidding  on  the  ice-covered  jDavement 
of  Main  street,  a  Ford  sedan  last  night 
careened  across  Third  street  and  over- 
turned upon  the  sidewalk  in  front  of  the 
Palace  drug  store.  Ralph  Sullivan,  402 
Logan  avenue,  owner  and  driver,  suffered 
a  broken  arm,  and  Mrs.  Sullivan  was 
badly  cut  by  broken  glass. 

Although  the  sleet  storm  that  raged  all 
evening  had  covered  the  asphalt  pave- 
ments with  ice,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Sullivan 
had  ventured  out  in  their  car  to  go  to 
the  Grand  moving-picture  theater  on  Main 
street.  On  their  return,  about  9:30,  Mr. 
Sullivan  turned  carefully  into  Third 
street,  but  the  rear  wheels  skidded,  and 
the  car  slid  sidewise  into  the  curb. 

As  the  left  front  wheel  splintered 
against  a  hydrant,  the  sedan  was  hurled 
upon  its  side  with  a  crash  that  brought 
neighbors  from  nearby  homes.  The  top 
missed  the  show  window  of  the  drug  store 
by  barely  two  feet,  and  the  sidewalk  was 
covered  with  broken  glass  from  the  car 
windows. 

Mr.    and   Mrs.    Sullivan   were   trapped 


NEWS   NARRATIVES 


133 


within  the  car  until  neighbors  helped  them 
through  the  windows.  Their  injuries  were 
cared  for  in  the  drug  store. 

The  motor  of  the  car  was  still  running, 
spinning  one  upturned  rear  wheel,  when 
they  left  the  drug  store  half  an  hour 
later.  A  small  boy  crawled  into  the  wreck 
and  shut  it  off. 


The  Lead. — Such  a  summary  paragraph  as  the  first  one 
in  the  above  story  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  news- 
story  form  used  by  almost  all  American  newspapers.  With- 
out it  the  story  is  much  like  any  other  narrative.  The 
summary  paragraph,  which  characterizes  the  form,  is 
known  as  the  lead  (pronounced  leed),  or  summary  lead. 
It  cannot  w^ell  be  called  an  introduction,  because  it  is  more 
than  that,  and  newspaper  men  therefore  devised  a  new 
name  for  it. 

An  analysis  of  the  above  lead  will  show  the  method  of 
newspaper  narrative,  because  every  well-written  lead  has 
the  same  essential  parts.  In  this  lead,  for  example,  the 
subject  and  verbs,  '^sl  Eord  sedan  .  .  .  careened  .  .  . 
overturned,"  give  the  gist  of  the  story — tell  ivliat  hap- 
pened. In  addition,  ^'last  night'^  tells  when  it  happened ; 
^^Main  street.  Third  street,  in  front  of  Palace  drug  store'' 
tell  luhere  it  happened ;  ^'ice-covered  pavement"  tells  luhy; 
"Ralph  Sullivan,  402  Logan  avenue,  owner  and  driver," 
tells  ivho;  and  the  verbs  tell  how.  In  other  words,  the 
above  lead  contains  the  gist  of  the  narrative,  plus  the 
answers  to  the  questions,  when,  where,  how,  ivhy,  and  whOj 
that  the  reader  unconsciously  asks  about  it. 

In  the  use  of  such  a  lead  the  newspaper  story  is  funda- 
mentally different  from  other  kinds  of  narratives  which 
reserve  the  climax  until  the  end.     The  news  writer  makes 


134 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


the  climax,  or  summary  of  the  content  of  the  story,  into  a 
separate  paragraph  at  the  beginning  so  that  the  reader  may 
know  what  happened  without  reading  all  the  details. 
After  the  lead  he  may,  or  may  not,  go  back  to  the  chrono- 
logical beginning. 

For  example,  the  construction  of  a  lead  for  the  follow- 
ing, which  is  not  in  news-story  form,  will  illustrate  the 
method : 

Most  of  the  tenants  of  the  three-story, 
six-flat  Arcadia  apartment  building,  2975 
Milton  avenue,  are  away  on  summer  trijDs. 
The  only  ones  in  the  building  last  night 
were  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Gerhard  M.  Littleton, 
their  baby,  and  John  Sterling,  their 
roomer,  living  on  the  third  floor. 

Mrs.  Littleton  was  awakened  about  2 
o'clock  this  morning  by  the  baby's  crying 
and  coughing.  She  awakened  slowly  be- 
cause the  room  was  full  of  smoke.  When 
she  succeeded  in  arousing  her  husband 
from  the  stujDor  caused  by  the  smoke,  she 
seized  the  baby  and  ran  to  the  front  door. 
Mr.  Littleton,  following  her,  shouted  to 
Sterling  as  he  ran.  A  cloud  of  dense 
smoke  poured  into  the  apartment  as  they 
opened  the  front  door,  and-  Mrs.  Littleton 
sank  down  unconscious.  Her  husband 
slammed  the  door,  ran  back  to  the  bath- 
room for  water,  and  tried  to  resuscitate 
her. 

Meanwhile  Sterling  opened  the  back 
door  and  found  the  outside  hallway  a 
mass  of  flames.  All  escape  seemed  to 
be  cut  off.  Taking  his  revolver  from  his 
chiffonier,  Sterling  opened  a  front  win- 
dow, and  fired  all  six  shots  into  the  air 
from  the  window  to  arouse  the  neighbors. 

While  Littleton  half  carried  and  half 
dragged   his   unconscious   wife   down   the 


NEWS  NARRATIVES 


135 


front  stairs  through  the  smoke,  Sterling 
ran  ahead  with  the  baby  wrapped  in  the 
folds  of  his  bathrobe.  He  fought  his  way 
through  the  smoke  and  reached  the  street 
safely. 

James  Brackett,  who  lives  across  the 
street  at  2976  Milton  avenue,  awakened 
by  the  shots,  had  telephoned  for  the  fire 
department  and  other  neighbors  were 
gathering  in  the  street  almost  as  soon 
as  Sterling  rushed  out  of  the  building. 
Handing  the  baby  to  a  neighbor,  Sterling 
looked  around  for  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Littleton 
and  then  started  back  into  the  burning- 
building  to  find  them.  Three  men  seized 
him  and  held  him  until  the  fiLi*e  depart- 
ment arrived. 

While  the  hose  was  being  attached  to 
a  hydrant.  Firemen  Patrick  Sweeney  and 
Joseph  Bailey,  of  Company  No.  3, 
plunged  into  the  burning  building  and 
found  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Littleton  lying  on 
the  second  landing  overcome  by  smoke. 
They  were  rescued  and  resuscitated. 

The  building  was  completely  destroyed 
with  a  loss  of  $30,000.  It  is  supposed 
that  the  fire  was  started  by  spontaneous 
combustion  in  one  of  the  second-floor 
apartments. 

In  this  story  the  news  is  that  a  building  burned  and  four 
persons  escaped  through  one  man's  presence  of  mind. 
The  news  writer  w^ould  perhaps  take  that  fact  as  his  begin- 
ning and  answer  the  questions,  who,  when,  why,  how,  and 
where  about  it — something  like  this: 

By  firing  six  revolver  shots  into  the 
air  through  an  open  window,  John  Ster- 
ling, a  roomer,  called  help  in  time  to  save 
the  lives  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Gerhard  Little- 
ton and  their  baby,  when  fire  destroyed 


136  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

the  three-story  six-flat  Arcadia  apartment 
house,  2975  Milton  avenue,  early  this 
morning. 

Finding  the  Littleton  apartment,  in 
which  he  roomed,  full  of  smoke  and  all 
escape  apparently  cut  off,  Sterling  took 
his  revolver  from  his  chi:ffonier,   etc. 

The  first  paragraph  above  would  constitute  the  lead,  and 
the  second  shows  the  transition  into  the  running  narrative 
of  the  story. 

Practical  Requirements. — This  will  indicate  that  a  good 
method,  while  the  form  is  being  mastered,  is  to  write  the 
narrative  first  and  the  lead  afterward.  It  may  be  neces- 
sary to  go  through  the  story  afterward  and  eliminate  some 
repetitions. 

There  are  several  tests  to  discover  whether  the  lead  ful- 
fills the  requirements.  (1)  It  should  be  an  absolutely 
separate  part  of  the  article,  almost  as  separate  as  the  head- 
line that  may  appear  above  it.  (2)  It  should  be  so  com- 
plete in  itself  that  it  might  be  printed  alone.  If  subsequent 
narrative  is  needed  to  make  it  clear,  the  lead  is  not  good. 
(3)  It  should  be  written  without  regard  for  the  headline 
that  may  appear  above  it.  That  will  be  written  afterward 
by  another  man  who  ordinarily  bases  his  statements  upon 
facts  contained  in  the  news-story's  lead. 

General  Use. — Such  is  the  form  of  narrative  that  is  used 
in  practically  all  articles  on  news  and  current  events  written 
in  American  newspaper  ofiices.  Whether  they  be  stories  of 
accidents,  of  crime,  of  legislative  proceedings,  of  court 
doings,  of  addresses,  of  interviews,  of  conventions,  or  of 
any  other  current  events,  the  summary  lead  is  used  as  the 
introduction,  primarily  to  enable  the  reader  to  extract  the 
content  of  a  12-page  newspaper  in  a  few  minutes. 


NEWS  NARRATIVES  137 

EXERCISES  XV 
Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  clip  five  news  stories  from 
a  newspaper  and  analyze  them.  Does  each  lead  sum 
up  the  story  adequately?  Does  each  lead  answer  the 
questions:  what,  when,  where,  how,  why? 

Tuesday 

1.  Select  one  of  the  human  interest  stories  written  for 
Chapter  VII  and  write  a  lead  that  summarizes  it  so 
that  the  reader  may  extract  its  content  without  reading 
the  entire  story.  Test  the  lead  according  to  the  sugges- 
tions in  the  chapter.  Notice  how  the  use  of  the  lead 
requires  a  change  of  emphasis  in  the  narrative.  Or, 
find  a  new  human  interest  story  and  treat  it  in  this  way. 

^Yednesday 

1.  Obtain  the  facts  concerning  an  accident,  robbery,  or 
other  current  event  in  the  last  few  days  and  write  an 
ordinary  narrative  with  the  idea  of  telling  the  story 
to  a  classmate. 

2.  In  class,  after  the  narrative  is  completed,  write  a  sum- 
mary lead,  not  exceeding  75  words,  which  tells  the  story 
in  brief.    Test  the  lead  to  see  that  it  is  adequate. 

3.  Place  the  lead  at  the  head  of  the  narrative  and  note 
what  changes  must  be  made  in  the  narrative  to  eliminate 
unnecessary  repetitions  and  to  make  a  readable  news- 
story. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Headlines 

The  kind  of  headlines  used  in  our  modern  newspapers  is 
an  American  invention,  used  in  but  few  other  countries  and 
developed  since  the  Civil  War.  It  is  distinctive  in  that, 
while  the  headline  of  other  coimtries  and  of  former  days  was 
merely  a  label  containing  a  noun  and  modifiers,  our  modern 


138  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

headline  contains  a  verb  and  makes  a  statement.  It  is  a 
bulletin-advertisement  of  the  news  article,  stating  the  news 
in  bulletin  form  and  attracting  readers  to  the  article.  Head- 
lines are  written  by  the  city  editor  or  copyreaders,  and  most 
newspapers  have  a  series  of  stock  headline  forms  which  are 
set  forth  in  the  headline  schedule  of  the  office  and  are  known 
by  number.  The  writing  of  headlines  is  difficult  because  of 
space  limitations;  the  copyreader  must  count  the  letters  and 
spaces  in  each  line  and  fit  the  space  exactly.  Hence,  he  is 
often  forced  to  resort  to  usages  not  permitted  in  other  news- 
paper writing  and  often  inadvertently  twists  or  colors  the 
news.  Space  has  forced  headline  writers  to  develop  a 
vocabularj^  of  short,  vivid  synonyms  and  new  words  that  are 
not  good  usage  in  news  writing.  Although  many  persons 
consider  a  newspaper  sensational  if  it  uses  large  black  head- 
lines, such  is  not  always  true,  for  large  headlines  are  often 
used  only  to  aid  the  newsboys.  Afternoon  newspapers,  even 
thought  fairly  conservative  in  policy,  are  likely  to  use  larger 
headlines,  because  they  sell  on  the  street,  than  morning  edi- 
tions that  go  mainly  to  regular  subscribers.  A  newspaper 
cannot  be  hastily  judged  by  the  type  used ;  some  greatly  belie 
their  appearance.  (For  names  of  headlines  see  Part  II, 
Chapter  II.) 

1.  Make  a  complete  headline  schedule  of  your  newspaper 
by  pasting  up  an  example  of  each  kind  used  and  in- 
dicating beside  each  line  the  number  of  letters  and  spaces 
(between  w^ords)  allowed. 

2.  Can  you  find  a  headline  that  does  not  contain  a  verb? 
One  that  is  not  an  adequate  summary? 

3.  What  abbreviations  and  colloquialisms  seem  to  be  al- 
lowed ? 

4.  Study  the  grammatical  interrelation  of  various  decks  in 
the  same  headline.  Do  you  find  any  in  wliich  confusion 
results  from  suppression  of  subject  or  faulty  reference? 


NEWS  NARRATIVES  139 

5.  Analyze  your  newspaper  to  see  whether  the  size  and 
blackness  of  the  headlines  have  anything  to  do  with 
sensation  or  conservatism  in  the  news  policy. 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  Study  the  federal  government.  What  are  the  full  names 
of  the  President  and  Vice  President  ?  What  is  the  native 
state  of  each?  Make  a  list  of  the  members  of  the 
President's  Cabinet,  noting  the  portfolio  of  each. 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test.  What  facts  do  you  know 
about  any  of  these  men?  TMiat  are  the  duties  of  the 
various  Cabinet  members?  How  is  the  American  Cab- 
inet different  from  the  English  Cabinet  ? 


CHAPTEE  XVI 
WRITING  NEWS  NARRATIVES 

Study  of  current  newspapers  will  indicate  tliat  tlie 
summary  lead  is  not  the  only  structural  characteristic  of 
the  news-story.  We  tried  writing  a  news-story  by  simply 
adding  a  summary  lead  to  its  beginning  and  found  that  the 
result  was  not  satisfactory.  The  principal  difficulty  en- 
countered was  that  the  summary  lead,  when  attached  to 
the  beginning  of  a  complete  narrative,  killed  the  point  of 
the  narrative ;  it  thwarted  all  attempt  at  surprise,  climax, 
or  suspense  and  made  the  narrative  sound  flat.  Evidently 
something  must  be  done  to  knit  together  more  closely  the 
combination  of  an  introductory  summary  and  a  separate 
narrative.  Newspaper  writers  have  solved  the  difficulty  by 
altering  the  entire  structure  of  the  narrative,  or  rather  by 
constructing  a  narrative  that  is  especially  planned  for  a 
summary  introduction.  How  they  do  this  we  must  learn 
before  we  can  write  successful  news-stories. 

Two  Climaxes — Looked  at  from  the  point  of  view  of 
logic,  rather  than  of  writing,  the  reason  for  the  ineifective- 
ness  of  our  first  attempts  is  simple.  Like  all  writers,  we 
built  our  narratives  in  the  order  in  which  their  events  took 
place,  beginning  with  introductory  details  and  leading  up 
to  the  climax  of  results.  That  is  the  way  in  which  things 
happen  in  the  world ;  they  begin  in  a  small  way  and  de- 
velop ;  causes  come  first  and  results  afterward.  In  telling 
a  narrative  in  its  logical  order,  the  writer  follows  the  same 

140 


WRITING  NEWS  NARRATIVES  141 

course,  from  cause  to  result,  from  small  beginning  to 
climaxes.  But  when  one  writes  a  narrative  in  this  fashion 
and  then  places  at  its  head  a  summary  of  the  climax,  the 
article  becomes  ungainly.  Both  ends  are  the  same,  and  the 
narrative  really  goes  in  a  circle.  To  be  logical  a  story  must 
begin  at  one  end  and  go  through  to  the  other,  instead  of 
beginning  and  ending  at  the  same  place. 

Reversed  Order — If  the  trouble  is  that  the  story  with 
a  summary  lead  is  double-ended,  has  two  climaxes,  we  must 
eliminate  one  of  the  climaxes.  We  cannot  eliminate  the 
first,  if  we  are  to  use  a  lead,  and  so  we  eliminate  the  last. 
That  is,  instead  of  beginning  with  small  details  and  work- 
ing up  to  the  climax,  we  begin  with  the  climax  and  work 
down.  Since  our  story  begins  with  results  (in  the  lead), 
we  finish  the  results  first  and  then  work  back  through  the 
causes  to  the  small  beginnings. 

Inverted  Pyramid — The  news-story,  therefore,  is  really 
told  wrong-end-to;  its  form  is  like  an  inverted  pyramid. 
The  first  few  paragraphs,  after  the  summary  lead,  contain 
the  most  important  things,  and  succeeding  paragraphs  be- 
come less  and  less  important,  until  the  last  is  of  little  sig- 
nificance. This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  method  by  which 
a  reporter  would  summarize  an  orator's  address.  The 
orator  invariably  begins  with  less  important  subjects, 
gathers  momentum  as  he  talks,  and  finally  works  up  to  his 
climax — his  real  message.  The  reporter  wishes  to  start 
w^ith  the  climax,  the  orator's  message,  and  then  to  repro- 
duce enough  of  the  preliminary  remarks  to  explain  it.  As 
the  message  is  usually  in  the  speaker's  last  paragraph,  the 
reporter  uses  that  in  his  first  paragraph.  But,  after  he  has 
quoted  this  message,  does  he  go  back  to  the  beginning  of 
the  address  and  work  up  to  the  climax  again  ?    No ;  after 


142 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


the  climax,  lie  places  tlie  next  most  significant  statement, 
which  probably  closely  preceded  it,  and  then  works  back 
through  toward  the  beginning  of  the  address.  His  report 
really  presents  the  address  wrong-end-to,  but,  if  it  is  well 
done,  it  presents  the  speaker's  ideas  quite  as  fairly  and 
effectively. 

Just  how  this  is  done  in  narratives  may  be  illustrated  by 
two  versions  of  the  same  story,  told  first  in  the  chrono- 
logical order  and  then  in  the  news-story  order.  In  the  first 
narrative  the  writer  presented  the  episodes  in  the  order  in 
which  they  occurred  with  the  climax  at  the  end,  thus : 


Lake  Mendota,  lashed  by  a  southwest 
wind,  was  too  rough  for  canoes  last  night, 
but  there  are  always  venturesome  youths 
who  delight  in  risking  their  lives  to  bat- 
tle with  the  waves  in  the  craft  that  the 
Indian  designed  for  use  only  in  the  calm- 
est weather. 

Last  night  the  temptation  was  too 
strong  for  Arthur  Simj^son  and  Henry 
Albright,  two  Brownville  boys  who  were 
spending  the  week-end  in  the  Jackson  cot- 
tage, near  the  Pheasant  Branch  landing. 
About  7  o'clock  they  launched  their  17- 
foot  Morris  canoe  and  headed  for  the 
open  w^ater.  As  they  battled  to  drive  the 
canoe  against  the  on-shore  wind,  Thomas 
Gallagher,  who  occupies  the  cottage  ad- 
joining, ran  out  on  the  pier  and  shouted 
to  them  to  come  back.  Whether  the  wind 
smothered  his  shouts  or  the  boys  pre- 
tended not  to  hear,  they  paddled  straight 
ahead  without  heeding  the  warning  and 
rounded  the  point  toward  the  Branch 
landing. 

Half  an  hour  later  the  venturesome 
l^addlers    swept    into    the    cove    of    the 


WRITING  NEWS  NARRATIVES 


143 


Pheasant  Branch  landing  with  the  wind 
and  waves  driving  them  at  motorboat 
speed.  They  clung  to  the  pier  just  long 
enough  to  shout  to  their  friend,  William 
Hall,  who  was  repairing  a  rowboat  on 
the  beach,  and  to  take  him  aboard.  Sam 
Nelson,  owner  of  the  Branch  boat  livery, 
was  not  letting  out  any  boats  or  canoes 
because  of  the  rough  weather  and  urged 
Hall  not  to  go  out. 

"We  can  handle  her,"  Hall  shouted  as 
he  pushed  the  canoe  away  from  the  pier. 

The  three  boys,  battling  against  the 
wind,  headed  straight  out  into  the  lake, 
then  turned  south,  and  were  lost  in  the 
darkness.  Everyone  who  had  seen  them 
expected  that  they  had  landed  at  one  of 
the  many  cottages  and  thought  no  more 
about  them. 

Mr.  Gallagher,  however,  became  so  wor- 
ried as  the  evening  drew  on  and  the  wind 
freshened  that,  about  11  o'clock,  he  tele- 
phoned to  Capt.  Louis  Dorran,  pilot  of 
the  mailboat,  and  persuaded  him  to  go 
out  and  look  for  them.  The  two  men  in 
the  mailboat  hunted  from  the  cottage  to 
the  Branch  landing  but  found  nothing  ex- 
cept a  paddle  which  might  or  might  not 
have  belonged  to  the  boys. 

As  the  mailboat  was  pulling  away  from 
the  Branch  landing  after  its  fruitless 
search,  the  round-the-lake  passenger  boat, 
"West  End,"  swung  into  the  cove  with  a 
dripping  green  canoe  slung  across  its  bow 
deck. 

"We  picked  it  up  about  a  mile  out," 
said  Gus  Doolittle,  the  pilot,  as  he  landed. 
"It  was  upside  down  and  the  searchlight 
just  happened  to  shine  on  it.  We  hunted 
all  around  but  we  didn't  see  nobody  in 
the  water.    Didn't  see  no  paddles,  either. 


144 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


The  canoe  don't  look  like  no  drifter.  So 
I  left  a  buoy  to  mark  the  place." 

While  they  were  examining  the  canoe 
for  marks  of  identification,  a  rowboat, 
manned  by  John  Saugland,  fisherman, 
swung  in  before  the  wind.  In  the  stern 
lay  an  unconscious  boy,  still  gripping  a 
cork  life  preserver. 

"It's  Bill  Hall,"  exclaimed  Nelson,  the 
boatman,  as  the  rowboat  beached.  "It's 
him  that  went  out  with  them  from  here." 

"I  found  him  hanging  on  to  that  life 
preserv^er,  half  a  mile  out,"  Saugland 
said.  "About  half  an  hour  ago  I  thought 
I  heard  somebody  calling  for  help  and  I 
took  the  boat  and  rowed  out  to  find  'em. 
Bad  night  for  canoes,  thinks  I.  Took 
some  hunting,  but  after  a  while  he  shouted 
again  and  I  found  him.  Just  about  all 
in,  then,  I  guess — keeled  over  when  I 
pulled  him  into  the  boat." 

The  men  worked  over  young  Hall  for 
twenty  minutes  before  he  began  to  show 
signs  of  life,  and  then  they  put  him  into 
Nelson's  automobile  and  rushed  him  to 
the  City  Hospital.  This  morning  he  is 
still  too  weak  to  talk. 

Just  what  happened  will  not  be  known 
until  Hall  recovers.  His  watch  stopped 
at  8:25  and  Saugland  picked  him  up 
about  11:30.  For  three  hours,  therefore, 
he  must  have  clung  to  the  life  preserver. 
The  physician  in  charge  believes  that  he 
was  ii)  the  water  that  long. 

No  trace  has  been  found  of  Arthur 
Simpson  and  Henry  Albright,  but  the 
lake  is  being  dragged  this  morning  around 
the  buoy  dropped  by  the  "West  End." 
Their  parents  have  been  notified  and  will 
aiTive  this  noon.  It  is  said  that  Mrs. 
Albright  is  prostrated. 


WRITING  NEWS  NARRATIVES  145 

The  same  narrative  is  rewritten  in  news-storj  form,  with 
the  climax  at  the  beginning  of  the  story,  in  the  following 
account : 

Two  boys  campers  were  drowned  in  Lake 
Mendota  last  night  while  paddling  in  a 
canoe  about  a  mile  south  of  the  Pheasant 
Branch  landing  against  a  strong  south- 
west wind  that  had  driven  other  small 
craft  from  the  lake.  A  companion  was 
rescued  after  he  had  clung  to  a  life  pre- 
server for  three  hours. 

The  boys  who  were  drowned  were 
Arthur  Simpson  and  Henry  Albright, 
both  of  Brownville,  who  were  spending 
the  week-end  at  the  Jackson  cottage  near 
the  Branch  landing.  William  Hall,  who 
was  rescued,  is  the  son  of  Attorney  John 
Hall  of  this  city. 

Hall  was  rescued  at  11:30  by  John 
Saugiand,  fisherman,  who  lives  about  a 
mile  south  of  the  landing.  Saugiand  was 
aroused  by  a  faint  call  of  ''Help"  just 
as  he  was  closing  his  shack  for  the  night. 
He  went  out  in  a  rowboat  to  seek  the 
person  from  whom  the  cry  came. 

"I  found  him  hanging  on  to  that  cork 
life  preserv^er  about  half  a  mile  out. 
When  I  heard  him  shout,  I  had  my 
shoes  off  but,  thinks  I,  it's  a  bad  night 
for  canoes.  Took  some  hunting  to  find 
him,  but  he  shouted  again  two  or  three 
times.  Just  about  all  in,  then,  J  guess — 
keeled  over  when  I  pulled  him  into  the 
boat." 

After  taking  Hall,  who  was  uncon- 
scious, to  the  Branch  landing,  Saugiand 
was  aided  in  resuscitating  him  by  Sam 
Nelson,  boat  liveryman,  and  others.  As 
the  boy's  condition  seemed  to  be  serious, 
Nelson  took  him  in  his  automobile  to  the 


146 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


City  Hospital.  This  morning  he  is  too 
weak  to  talk  but  it  is  said  that  he  will 
probably  recover. 

That  he  w^as  in  the  water  for  a  long 
time  is  indicated,  not  only  by  his  condi- 
tion, but  by  the  fact  that  his  watch  had 
stopped  at  8:25.  It  is  supposed  that  he 
clung  to  the  life  preserver  for  the  three 
hours  from  then  until  he  was  rescued 
about  11 :30. 

The  bodies  of  the  two  other  boys  have 
not  yet  been  recovered.  The  canoe  was 
picked  up  about  11  o'clock  last  night  by 
Gus  Doolittle,  pilot  of  the  round-the-lake 
boat,  "West  End,"  and  taken  to  the 
Branch  landing  just  a  few  minutes  before 
Saugland  arrived  in  his  rowboat  with 
Hall  lying  unconscious  in  the  stern. 

A  paddle  had  been  picked  up  shortly 
before  by  Capt.  Louis  Dorran,  pilot  of 
the  mailboat,  and  Thomas  Gallagher, 
neighbor  of  the  Jackson  cottage,  who 
were  out  searching  for  the  boys.  Doo- 
little dropped  a  buoy  to  mark  the  spot 
where  the  canoe  was  found,  and  several 
parties  are  dragging  the  lake  in  that 
vicinity  this  morning. 

Because  of  the  strong  southwest  wind 
and  the  roughness  of  the  lake,  few  boats 
were  out  and  little  is  known  of  the  acci- 
dent except  by  Mr.  Gallagher  and  Mr. 
Nelson  of  the  boat  livery. 

Mr.  Gallagher  saw  the  two  Brownville 
boys  starting  out  from  the  Jackson  cot- 
tage in  a  17-foot  Morris  canoe  about  7 
o'clock.  As  they  battled  to  drive  the 
canoe  into  the  on-shore  wind,  he  went 
out  on  his  pier,  and  shouted  to  them  that 
the  lake  was  too  rough  for  canoes.  But, 
either  because  they  did  not  hear  him  or 
because  they  were  venturesome,  they  did 


WRITING  NEWS  NARRATIVES 


147 


not  heed  his  warning  and  paddled  around 
the  point  out  of  sight. 

"Later  in  the  evening  I  became  .worried 
because  the  boys  did  not  return,"  Mr. 
Gallagher  said  this  morning,  "and  I  tele- 
phoned to  Captain  Dorran  of  the  mail- 
boat  to  go  out  with  me  and  search  for 
them.  We  found  nothing  but  a  paddle 
and  had  just  given  ujd  the  search  and 
run  in  to  the  Branch  landing  when  the 
'West  End'  brought  in  the  canoe.  A  little 
later  Saugland  appeared  with  Hall  in 
his"  rowboat." 

The  two  boys  had  landed  at  the  Branch 
l^ier  about  7:30  and  picked  up  Hall,  who 
was  repairing  a  rowboat  on  the  beach, 
according  to  Sam  Nelson,  owner  of  the 
Branch  boat  livery.  No  boats  or  canoes 
were  being  rented  out  because  of  the 
wind,  and  Nelson  urged  the  boys  not  to 
go  out.  But  they  insisted  that  they  could 
weather  the  storm.  The  last  that  was 
seen  of  them  was  when  they  headed 
straight  out  into  the  lake  from  the  land- 
ing, turned  south,  and  disappeared  in  the 
darkness. 

The  parents  of  the  two  boys  have  been 
notified  and  will  arrive  this  noon.  Mrs. 
Albright  was  i:)rostrated  by  the  news,  it 
is  said.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Hall  are  at  the 
bedside  of  their  son. 


The  Outline — Study  of  the  two  narratives  above  will 
indicate  that  the  characteristic  structure  of  the  news-story 
is  more  a  question  of  outlining  than  of  writing.  The  two 
stories  do  not  differ  greatly  in  statements  or  wording ;  the 
material  simply  is  arranged  in  a  different  order.  For  ex- 
ample, the  outlines  of  the  two  narratives  would  be  as 
follows : 


148  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Chronological  Order  Neivs-Story  Order 

The  situation — a  storm  Lead — two  bo3's  drowned,  one 

Two  boys  start  out — warned  rescued 

Stop   at   Branch  for   Hall —  Who  they  were 

again  warned  Rescue  of  Hall  by  Saugland 

Leave  shore — last  seen  Hall  resuscitated 

Two  men  hunt — find  paddle  Hall's  condition  and  experi- 

^'West  End''  finds  canoe  ence 

Saugland  brings  in  HaU  Traces  of  other  boys — canoe 

How  Saugland  found  him  and  paddle 

Hall  resuscitated  Gallagher  saw  them  start 

Report  from  hospital  Dorran  and  Gallagher  search 

Search  this  morning  Nelson    saw    them    pick    up 

Hall 
This  morning 

The  Process — Looked  at  from  the  point  of  view  of  con- 
struction, all  news-stories  may  be  put  together  after  the 
same  plan.  The  first  step  is  to  make  a  list  or  outline  of 
the  various  scenes  or  points  to  be  made  in  the  story.  The 
next  is  to  arrange  them  in  the  order  of  their  relative  inter- 
est. After  that,  the  narrative  is  written  like  any  other  in 
accordance  with  its  outline.  The  summary  lead  may  well 
be  w^ritten  last  since  it  is  the  most  important  part.  In 
wording  and  style  new^s-stories  are  no  different  from  other 
narratives.  The  writer  uses  the  same  methods  that  he  used 
before,  bringing  in  exposition  and  description  where  they 
are  needed  and  attempting  to  develop  as  much  action  as 
possible.  Every  one  of  the  suggestions  set  forth  in  Chapter 
YII  may  be  follo^ved  here.  As  in  all  journalistic  writing, 
the  writer  should  use  moderately  short  paragraphs ;  that  is, 
not  longer  than  50  or  75  words. 

Paragraph  Beginnings.— Because  of  its  increased  sig- 
nificance, it  is  well  to  notice  again  what  has  been  said  about 
the  inverted  emphasis  characteristic  of  journalistic  writ- 


WRITING  NEWS   NARRATIVES  149 

ing.  Since  he  is  writing  for  a  reader  who  peruses  his  story 
rapidly  and  silently,  the  news-story  writer  attempts  to 
place  the  point  of  each  sentence  and  each  paragraph  in  the 
first  few  words.  In  each  paragraph  the  first  few  words 
usually  contain  the  topic  sentence.  The  significance  of  this 
will  be  seen  when  the  article  is  printed;  because  of  the 
indention,  the  first  line  of  each  paragraph  stands  out  as  a 
spot  that  is  more  likely  to  catch  the  reader's  eye  and  to  be 
read  than  any  other  line. 

EXERCISES  XVI 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  select  five  news-stories  in  a 
newspaper  and  make  an  outline  of  each.  Are  the  events 
presented  in  natural  order  or  not?  The  outline  will 
show  this  plainly. 

Tuesday 

1.  Outline  the  scenes  or  episodes  in  one  of  the  stories 
written  last  week  (or  a  new  one),  following  the  natural 
order  in  which  they  occurred.  Eearrange  the  outline 
to  place  the  episodes  in  the  order  of  their  interest  or 
importance. 

2.  In  class,  rewrite  the  story  on  the  new  outline.  Attach 
the  summary  lead  prepared  before  and  see  if  the  result 
is  not  a  better  news-story. 

Wednesday 

1.  Obtain  the  facts  concerning  an  event  of  the  last  few 
days — an  accident,  someone's  achievement,  or  a  similar 
occurrence.  Outline  it  according  to  the  news-story  plan, 
and  write  the  story.  Do  not  write  the  lead  until  after 
the  rest  is  completed. 

2.  In  class,  the  leads  will  be  examined  on  the  board ;  every 
word  will  be  tested  to  see  if  it  is  the  right  word  and 
is  necessary. 


150  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Dividing  the  Day 

How  the  twenty-four  hours  of  each  day  and  night  are 
divided  between  the  morning  and  afternoon  newspapers  may 
be  best  seen  in  a  city  that  has  both  morning  and  afternoon 
papers  for  there  it  applies  to  local  news.  But,  in  a  city  that 
has  but  one  kind,  the  division  may  be  seen  in  telegraph  news, 
for  the  press  associations  divide  the  twenty-four  hours  in  the 
same  way.  The  basis  of  the  division  is  that  each  morning 
or  afternoon  paper  shall  cover  roughly  half  of  the  twenty- 
four  hours  as  its  own  news  field,  giving  complete  accounts 
of  all  events  that  happen  during  that  period.  The  events 
of  the  other  half  of  the  period  are  covered  by  its  competitor. 
That  is,  an  afternoon  newspaper  goes  to  press  with  its  last 
edition  between  3 :30  and  5  p.m. — let  us  say,  4  p.m.  ;  its  news 
field  covers  all  that  has  happened  since  the  morning  news- 
paper went  to  press  sometime  between  2  and  4  a.m.  The 
morning  newspaper,  in  turn,  covers  the  events  occurring 
between  4  p.m.  and  4  a.m.  Each  newspaper  sends  its  own 
reporters  to  cover  the  events  of  its  own  period  but  does  not 
usually  send  reporters  to  cover  the  other  period,  since  the 
other  paper  covered  that.  But,  since  many  readers  buy  but 
one  newspaper  each  day  and  would,  therefore,  miss  the  events 
of  half  the  day,  each  newspaper  gives  brief  digests  of  the 
articles  published  by  its  competitor.  These  digests,  known 
as  '^rewrites,^'  "boiled  items,"  and  "follows,"  as  used  for  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  news,  will  be  studied  next  week. 

1.  Note  the  time  in  each  local  story  in  your  newspaper. 
Did  each  event  occur  in  the  paper's  own  news  period? 
In  the  stories  of  events  that  preceded  the  time  period, 
note  the  method  of  handling. 

2.  If  you  can  obtain  both  morning  and  afternoon  papers 
of  the  same  day,  study  the  division  of  the  day  as  shown 


WRITING  NEWS  NARRATIVES  151 

in  both  local  and  telegraph  news.     Watch  the  same 
articles  in  each. 

3.  i!^ote  in  today's  morning  newspaper  the  articles  that 
should  be  briefly  reported  in  the  afternoon  paper  be- 
cause they  happened  since  yesterday  afternoon's  paper 
went  to  press.  Or,  apply  the  same  study  to  an  afternoon 
paper. 

4.  Are  the  second  or  later  stories  (rewrites  and  follows) 
that  you  find  written  so  as  to  be  clear  to  a  reader  who 
did  not  see  the  first  stories? 

5.  AMiat  stories  have  been  followed  locally  for  several  days  ? 
Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  How  many  members  has  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court,  and  who  is  Chief  Justice?  How  many  members 
has  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  who  is  Speaker? 

.   How  many  members  has  the  United  States  Senate  and 
who  is  President  of  it? 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test  and  oral  discussion.  What 
cases  go  to  the  Supreme  Court  ?  Just  how  is  that  court 
one  of  the  ^^three  checks  in  our  government"?  When 
does  Congress  convene  again  and  for  how  long  ?  Current 
news. 


CHAPTEE  XYII 
EMPHASIZING  NEWS  VALUE 

Besides  tlie  summary  lead  and  the  inverted  order,  tliere 
is  still  another  characteristic  in  well-written  news-stories. 
In  newspaper  offices  it  is  called  the  ^^featnre/^  and  it  is  this 
that  is  meant  when  an  editor  admonishes  a  reporter  ^'to 
play  np  the  feature/'  In  reality,  to  play  np  the  feature  is 
merely  a  way  of  emphasizing  news  value  to  make  a  news- 
story  more  interesting.  ^To  play  up"  means  to  place  in 
a  significant  position.  Important  articles  are  ^^played  up'' 
when  they  are  placed  in  important  positions  on  a  news- 
paper page  under  prominent  headlines ;  in  the  same  way, 
parts  of  a  story  are  played  up  when  they  are  brought  into 
prominence — that  is,  near  the  beginning.  The  ^'feature" 
is  the  most  interesting  part  of  a  story,  the  part  that  gives 
it  news  value,  makes  it  worth  printing.  ('Teature"  in  this 
case  should  not  be  confused  with  the  term  ^'feature  story," 
which  is  applied  to  an  article  without  news  value — for 
example,  a  human  interest  narrative.) 

"To  place  the  most  important  part  at  the  beginning" 
would  seem  at  first  like  a  repetition  of  the  suggestions  for 
the  construction  of  a  summary  lead.  It  is  not,  however,  for 
the  feature  is  something  aside  from  the  summary  or  gist 
of  the  story,  and  "beginning"  means  "first  line."  The 
feature  may  be  a  part  of  the  summary  or  it  may  be  an 
attendant  fact.    The  interest  or  news  value  of  a  story  may 

152 


EIVIPHASIZING  NEWS  VALUE  153 

be  in  some  fact  or  action  that  accompanied  tlie  main  event. 
For  example,  if  a  house  were  to  burn  down  today,  the  lead 
of  a  news-storj  might  relate  the  occurrence  as  follows: 
^'Fire  destroyed  the  residence  of  John  H.  Harper,  426 
Eegent  street,  at  9  o'clock  this  morning,  etc."  But  the 
most  interesting  feature  of  the  story  may  be  that  Mr. 
Harper's  small  son  fell  out  of  a  window  during  the  fire; 
that  is,  it  is  more  interesting  to  newspaper  readers  than  the 
fire  itself.  It  might  be  played  up  thus :  "Falling  from  a 
second  story  window  into  a  fireman's  arms,  7-year-old 
Henry  Harper  broke  his  arm  during  a  fire  that  destroyed 
the  house  occupied  by  his  father,  John  H.  Harper,  426 
Regent  street,  at  9  o'clock,  etc."  In  the  same  way,  the  fact 
that  an  automobile  runs  into  a  tree  may  be  overshadowed 
by  the  fact  that  the  driver  is  killed,  and  the  news-writer, 
while  summarizing  both  facts  in  the  lead,  plays  up  the 
most  interesting  feature  thus:  "Hurled  from  an  auto- 
mobile against  a  tree,  Frank  Jones,  taxi-driver,  was 
instantly  killed  early  this  morning  when  his  car  skidded 
and,  etc." 

Almost  every  news-story,  in  the  same  way,  contains  some 
phase  that  is  more  interesting  than  the  main  event  itself. 
In  the  account  of  an  exhibit,  for  instance,  one  item  may 
stand  out  as  more  interesting  than  all  the  rest  and  be  played 
up  thus :  "Benjamin  Franklin's  electric  machine  is  on  dis- 
play this  week  as  a  part  of  a  special  exhibit  of  historical 
relics  which  is  being  shown  to  the  public  by,  etc."  The 
summary  of  the  story  is  in  this  case :  "A  special  exhibit  of 
historical  relics  is  being  shown  to  the  public,  etc."  The 
news-writer  "plays  up"  Franklin's  machine  by  putting  it 
in  the  first  line.  This  method  of  writing  the  lead  increases 
the  news  value  of  the  story  because  the  newspaper  reader 


154  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

is  more  likely  to  be  interested  in  "Benjamin  Franklin's, 
electric  machine/'  than  in  "A  special  exhibit  of  historical 
relics." 

Easy  Beginning. — Besides  providing  a  way  to  emphasize 
interest  in  a  narrative,  this  method  of  writing  a  lead  solves 
the  problem,  "How  shall  I  begin  ?"  It  tells  the  writer  at 
once  what  will  make  the  most  attractive  beginning. 
The  same  idea  may  be  applied,  in  general,  to  all 
kinds  of  writing.  Many  writers,  at  a  loss  for  a  begin- 
ning, pnzzle  to  find  a  witticism  or  a  comparison  or  a 
generality  to  lead  off  their  articles.  They  may  save 
all  that  trouble  and  improve  their  articles  by  remem- 
bering that,  if  a  story  is  worth  telling  at  all,  there  is 
snrely  some  fact  or  incident  in  it  that  is  worth  the  first 
line.  Instead  of  looking  all  over  the  universe  for  some- 
thing outside  the  article  to  begin  with,  they  should  look 
through  the  facts  within  Jhe  article  and  begin  with  the 
most  interesting  of  them.  That  is  why  it  is  well,  in  news- 
writing  as  well  as  in  other  writing,  to  write  the  introduc- 
tion, or  lead,  last ;  the  writing  of  the  rest  of  the  article  will 
aid  the  writer  in  selecting  its  most  interesting  part. 

Grammatical  Beginnings. — The  problem  of  beginning 
may  often  be  solved  by  an  investigation  of  the  grammatical 
possibilities.  However  well  versed  in  grammar  the  writer 
may  be,  his  tendency  is  to  use  two  or  three  grammatical 
forms  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  Trials  of  the  various 
possible  constructions  frequently  suggest  an  effective  begin- 
ning that  would  otherwise  be  overlooked.  Here  are  some 
possibilities : 

1.  Noun. — The  noun  may  be  the  subject  or  object  of  the 
principal  verb,  or,  in  some  cases,  another  part  of  the  sen- 
tence.    One  should  note  the  tendencv  anions;  news-writers 


EMPHASIZING  NEWS  VALUE  155 

to  avoid  beginning  with  ''a"  or  ^^the"  to  gain  variety.    Here 
'is  a  noun  beginning: 

Eleven  automobiles  belonging  to  private 
owners  were  destroj-ed  in  a  fire,  caused 
by  defective  wiring,  which  swept  the 
Kirkland  garage,  1189  Marshall  avenue, 
and  thi^eatened  the  Memorial  Methodist 
Church  early  this  morning. 

2.  Infinitive. — An  infinitive  phrase,  used  as  subject  of 
a  verb  or  in  some  other  relation,  injects  action  into  the  first 
few  words.  It  is  an  effective  means  for  expressing  purpose. 

To  supply  funds  with  which  to  keep  a 
doctor  and  a  nurse  in  constant  attendance 
at  their  baby  clinic,  the  officers  of  the 
Associated  Charities  today  began  to  work 
out  plans  for  the  tag  day  to  be  held  in 
the  near  future. 

3.  Substantive  Clause. — Usually  beginning  with  that, 
liow,  or  luliy,  this  is  useful  for  starting  with  a  summary  of 
results.  It  is  frequently  used  to  j)lace  the  content  of  a 
statement,  or  opinion,  first: 

That  a  new  building  is  to  be  erected 
to  house  the  activities  of  the  State  Society 
for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals 
was  the  announcement  of  Dr.  R.  A. 
Brown,  jDresident  of  the  society,  in  his 
monthly  report  which  was  made  public 
yesterday. 

4.  Prepositional  Phrase. — When  the  writer  wishes  to 
begin  with  circumstances  attending  an  action,  this  offers  a 
good  expedient: 


156 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


With  the  slogan,  "Save  a  Life  for  $50," 
the  Health  Colony  Club  today  began  a 
state-wide  campaign  for  funds  to  erect 
and  equip  a  new  sanitorium. 


In  a  collision  between  a  Peerless  sedan 
and  a  Ford  touring  car  at  Armour  avenue 
and  First  s'treet  at  10:30  this  morning, 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  C.  R.  Glover,  971  Ninth 
street,  who  were  riding  in  the  Ford,  were 
so  seriously  injured  that  they  were  taken 
to  Mercy  Hospital. 


5.  Participial  Phrase. — This  is  the  best  means  to  get 
action  into  the  first  line.  It  places  action  ahead  of  the 
actor,  whose  name  may  not  be  of  interest.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  nse  the  participial  correctly — as  an  adjective 
modifier  of  a  noun,  rather  than  as  subject  of  a  verb. 


Flying  at  a  speed  of  virtually  three 
miles  a  minute,  Lieut.  C.  C.  Marshall, 
piloting  an  American-made  Verville-Pack- 
ard  army  plane,  won  the  first  Pulitzer 
trophy  aeronautical  race  here  today 
against  a  field  of  thirty-four  starters. 


6.  Temporal  Clause. — To  lead  off  with  interesting 
action  that  attended  the  main  event,  a  temporal  clause,  be- 
ginning with  ivlien  or  ivhere,  is  effective: 


When  7,700  policemen  have  brushed 
their  uniforms,  polished  their  buttons, 
and  got  their  final  instructions,  their  an- 
nual parade  will  be  ready  to  start  at  1 : 30 
this  afternoon  at  Fifth  avenue  and  26th 
street. 


7.  Causal  or  Concession  Clause. — The  cause  of  the  main 
action  in  the  article  may  be  emphasized  by  the  use  of  a 


EMPHASIZING  NEWS  VALUE  157 

causal  clause  beginning  with  because,  since,  as,  or  a  similar 
word.  A  concessive  idea  is  emphasized  by  a  clause  begin- 
ning with  although,  etc. : 

Because  be  permitted  his  15-year-old 
son  to  go  joy-riding  in  the  family  auto- 
mobile, John  H.  Jones,  1214  S.  Homan 
avenue,  was  held  by  a  coroner's  jury 
yesterday  on  a  charge  of  having  been  an 
accessory  to  manslaughter. 


Although  Evanston  has  a  curfew  law, 
the  old  town  bell  in  Fountain  square  will 
not  be  tolled  each  evening  at  8  o'clock 
as  proposed.  Instead,  the  city  council, 
etc. 


There  are  several  other  hints  that  may  be  followed  in 
order  to  write  an  effective,  attractive  beginning  for  a  news- 
narrative  : 

1.  ^^A"  or  "The," — It  is  well  to  avoid  beginning  with 
an  article  whenever  possible,  not  because  there  is  anything 
objectionable  about  the  article,  but  because  every  story  will 
begin  with  an  article  unless  the  writer  takes  care.  By 
forcing  himself  to  avoid  it,  he  may  hit  upon  some  novel  and 
attractive  beginning. 

2.  Beginning  with  Names. — Avoid  beginning  with  the 
name  of  an  actor  in  the  story  if  the  name  is  likely  to  be 
unknown  and  therefore  uninteresting.  Usually  the  reader 
is  interested,  not  in  the  person,  but  in  the  things  that  he 
does,  and  the  writer  tries  to  place  action  ahead  of  the  name. 
When  one  of  the  characters  is  well-known,  however,  the 
name  is  an  interesting  feature. 

3.  Principal  Verb. — Care  should  be  taken  that  the  prin- 
cipal verb  of  the  lead  says  something  of  importance.     Too 


158  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

often  the  writer  expends  all  his  energy  on  the  introductory 
phrase  or  clause  and  saves  nothing  of  importance  for  the 
principal  clause. 

4.  Length  of  Lead. — The  writer  should  not  attempt  to 
crowd  too  many  details  into  the  lead ;  it  should  express  only 
the  principal  points.  It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  rules 
regarding  the  length  of  the  lead  but,  for  the  sake  of  prac- 
tice, it  might  be  limited  to  75  words. 

5.  Generalities. — The  first  line,  in  fact,  the  entire  lead, 
must  stand  the  test  of  concreteness.  Does  the  first  line 
really  present  a  concrete  statement  of  action,  or  is  it  merely 
a  roundabout,  meaningless  summary  that  requires  further 
explanation  ?  For  example,  this  beginning :  ''The  quick 
wit  of  a  16-year-old  boy  saved  the  high  school  from  destruc- 
tion by  fire "  contains  nothing  specific.  When  trans- 
lated into  concrete  terms,  however,  it  is  much  more 
interesting:  ''By  throwing  a  blazing  retort  out  of  a 
window,  while  his  frightened  classmates  fled,  Henry  Smith, 
16-year-old  student,  prevented  an  explosion  in  the  chemical 
laboratory  at  the  high  school  and " 

So  much  for  the  feature.  But,  since  the  feature  dis- 
played in  the  first  line  is  the  thing  that  attracts  the  reader's 
interest,  it  should  be  elaborated  and  explained  early  in  the 
narrative  to  satisfy  the  curiosity  aroused.  In  the  above 
example,  for  instance,  the  second  and  third  paragraphs 
should  be  devoted  to  telling  in  detail  just  what  Henry 
Smith  did,  before  other  matters  are  discussed. 

EXERCISES  XVII 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  select  a  long  news-story  from 
a  newspaper  and  decide  what  is  the  point  of  it — the 
feature    that    gives    it   news    value.      Has    the    writer 


EMPHASIZING  NEWS  VALUE  159 

presented  this  feature  in  the  first  line  ?    Try  presenting 
the  feature  in  tlie  various  grammatical  ways  suggested. 
Tuesday 

1.  Interview  a  grocer  on  the  subject  of  the  supply  and 
prices  of  various  commodities,  such  as  vegetables,  eggs, 
butter,  potatoes,  flour,  etc.,  in  preparation  for  a  market 
story  to  guide  housewives  in  shopping. 

2.  Optional.  Interview  a  garage  man  on  the  changes  in 
design,  construction,  and  price  to  be  expected  in  the 
new  season's  automobiles.  Or,  narrate  the  various  steps 
in  the  building  up  of  the  city's  business  district  (as 
told  by  an  old  resident),  beginning  with  the  latest  struc- 
ture. 

^yednesday 

1.  Write  the  body  of  one  of  the  above  articles  without 
regard  for  the  introduction  or  lead.  Then  write  a  lead 
that  summarizes  the  entire  article. 

2.  In  class,  select  the  most  interesting  item  in  the  article 
to  be  played  up  as  a  feature.  AYrite  seven  different  leads 
in  which  the  same  facts  are  summarized  and  the  same 
feature  emphasized,  but  in  each  use  a  different  gram- 
matical beginning.    AYhich  is  best? 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Laying  the  Foundation 

The  preparation  of  rewrites  and  follow  stories,  which  in 
some  offices  is  called  ^'laying  the  foundation,"  was  suggested 
in  the  last  week's  study  of  the  division  of  the  day.  It  is 
usually  done  by  a  sub-editor  who  begins  work  sometime  before 
the  staff  arrives.  If  he  is  on  an  afternoon  paper,  for  instance, 
he  goes  through  each  of  the  morning  papers  in  the  city  and 
clips  all  local  articles  that  must  be  handled  in  his  newspaper, 
sorting  the  clips  into  four  groups:  (1)  "boiled  down  items," 
which  are  to  be  rewritten  in  one  paragraph,  perhaps  for  a 


160  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

column  headed  "City  Xews  in  Briefs ;  (2)  "rewrites/'  which 
are  to  be  "rehashed"  into  stories  under  news  headlines;  (3) 
"follows"  of  events  in  which  there  may  be  later  developments ; 
and  (4)  "tips"  of  future  events  to  be  recorded  in  the  city 
editor's  date  book.  The  last  two  piles  he  gives  to  the  city 
editor;  the  first  two  he  or  some  other  desk  man  rewrites  at 
once.  The  boiled  item  is  hard  to  write  because  it  must  give 
the  news  in  one  or  two  sentences.  The  rewrite  begins  with 
a  new  lead  emphasizing  a  feature  that  was  buried  in  the  first 
story;  that  is,  if  the  first  emphasized  the  loss  in  a  fire,  the 
rewrite  may  stress  the  cause.  The  entire  article  is  rehashed 
in  shorter  form  bringing  out  parts  that  were  skimmed  over 
in  the  first  account.  For  the  follow  items,  the  city  editor 
assigns  reporters  to  seek  later  developments  and  rewrite  with 
later  phases  first.  In  each  the  writer  tries  to  adapt  the  article 
both  for  the  readers  who  saw  the  first  account  and  for  those 
who  did  not.  Eewrites  and  follows  of  telegraph  news  are 
handled  by  the  press  associations. 

1.  Tor  this  study  obtain  morning  and  afternoon  napers  of 
the  same  day  and  same  city.  Trace  handling  of  each 
event  in  both. 

2.  Search  for  boiled  items  in  later  paper  and  try  to  find 
the  first  story  in  the  other  paper. 

3.  Compare  a  rewrite  story  in  the  later  paper  with  the 
first,  noting  new  feature  and  outline.  Notice  how  later 
developments  lead  in  a  follow  story. 

4.  An  interesting  exercise  is  to  clip  all  local  stories  in  one 
paper  and  plan  the  rewrites  and  follows. 

5.  Select  the  largest  local  news  event  and  forecast  possible 
later  developments — follow  possibilities.  Make  another 
list  of  possible  follow-up  articles  on  subjects  related  to  it. 

6.  Can  you  find  a  subject  that  is  being  followed  up  because 
the  public  is  still  interested,  although  it  might  better 
be  dropped? 


EMPHASIZING  NEWS  VALUE  161 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  List  the  present  ambassadors  and  ministers  from  the 
United  States  to  these  countries :  England,  France,  Ger- 
many, Spain,  Italy,  Eussia,  Sweden,  Nor^yay,  Holland, 
Belgium,  China,  and  Japan.  List  the  ambassadors  sent 
here  from  those  countries.  (Find  list  in  a  newspaper 
almanac.) 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test.  "Which  of  these  am- 
bassadors has  appeared  in  the  news  recently?  In  what 
cities  do  they  live?  What  do  you  know  about  any  of 
them?     Other  current  news. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
REPORTING  SPEECHES 

A  special  kind  of  journalistic  work  that  is  a  common 
task  in  a  newspaper  office  and  affords  excellent  practice  in 
composition  is  the  reporting  of  speeches,  addresses,  and 
lectures.  Almost  all  American  newspajoers  j^i'int  reports 
of  important  addresses,  such  as  political  speeches  of  all 
kinds,  campaign  talks,  scientific  or  literary  lectures,  ser- 
mons, papers  read  at  conventions,  addresses  at  important 
dinners;  anything  that  is  said  in  public  is  within  their 
scope,  if  it  is  of  sufficient  interest  to  their  readers.  The 
printed  version,  which  is  merely  a  summary  of  what  was 
said,  is  called  a  ''story,"  like  other  articles  in  a  newspaper, 
or  is  designated  by  the  special  name,  "speech  report."  The 
report  is  characterized  by  the  means  which  the  newspaper 
man  employs  to  summarize  a  long  address  in  short  space 
and  to  inject  into  it  the  narrative  tone  that  he  loves. 
Speech  reporting  is  excellent  practice,  especially  because  it 
is  difficult  and  exacting. 

Before  learning  hoiu  it  is  done,  it  is  w^ell  to  understand 
what  the  speech  report  aims  to  do.  It  purposes  to  2:)resent 
in  a  few  hundred  words  the  summary  of,  and  the  most 
interesting  statements  in,  an  address  of  many  times  that 
length.  It  aims:  (1)  to  boil  down  several  thousand  words 
to  a  couple  of  pages,  (2)  to  give  the  speaker's  point  of  view, 
and  (3)  to  make  an  interesting  article.  To  combine  these 
various  purposes,  the  speech  report  quotes  directly  certain 

162 


REPORTING  SPEECHES 


163 


parts  of  the  address  and  gathers  together  in  summary  form 
enough  more  to  exphiin  the  speaker's  ideas.  To  save  the 
reader  the  trouble  of  reading  the  entire  report  to  obtain  its 
content,  the  writer  uses  at  the  beginning  a  summary  lead 
that  presents  one  of  the  significant  statements  made  by  the 
speaker  or  a  summary  of  his  remarks.  In  the  same  lead, 
usually  at  the  end  of  it,  the  writer  tells  who  the  speaker 
was,  when  and  where  h^  spoke,  and  perhaps  something  of 
the  circumstances.  For  example,  the  following  quotes  the 
first  two  paragraphs. of  a  newspaper  speech  report: 


"The  magazines  and  the  ^movies'  have 
supplanted  the  perusal  of  the  greatest 
things  in  the  field  of  literature  and  art," 
declared  the  Rev.  David  M.  Smith,  rector 
of  Grace  Episcopal  Church,  in  a  talk  on 
"Religion  in  the  Work  of  William  Shakes- 
peare," dehvered  before  the  Community 
Club  yesterday  afternoon. 

"This  very  thing  is  a  condemnation  of 
certain  forms  of  present-day  realism  in 
literature,  which  looks  only  upon  the  sur- 
face and  can  see  no  God,  no  religion,  and 
no  end,"  he  continued.  "Shakespeare  was 
a  deeply  religious  man.  No  other  writer 
in  English  literature,  except  Bunyan,  has 
drawn  so  much  of  his  material  directly 
from  the  Bible." 


How  It  Is  Done. — One  half  the  task  of  speech  reporting 
is  the  writing ;  the  other  half  is  reporting.  That  is,  before 
the  report  is  written,  the  writer  must  hear  or  read  the  com- 
plete address  to  obtain  material  for  his  report ;  he  must 
''cover"  the  address,  as  they  say  in  newspaper  offices.  The 
material  may  be  obtained  in  several  different  ways:  (1) 
It  is  sometimes  possible  for  the  reporter  to  obtain  from  the 


164  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

speaker  a  copy  of  the  address,  either  before,  or  immediately 
after,  the  address  is  delivered,  and  to  write  his  report  from 
this  copy  without  listening  to  the  oral  delivery.  Reporters 
always  make  an  effort  to  obtain  such  a  copy,  and  often 
speakers  send  copies  to  the  newspapers  in  advance,  but 
this  is,  of  course,  impossible  when  the  address  is  delivered 
extempore  or  without  manuscript.  (2)  If  the  address  is 
of  sufficient  importance,  the  newspaper  may  send  a  stenog- 
rapher to  report  it  in  full.  This  method  is  seldom  used, 
because  it  takes  too  long  for  the  stenographer  to  transcribe 
the  entire  speech  before  the  digest  of  it  may  be  made.  (3) 
The  commonest  method  is  for  the  reporter  to  listen  to 
address  and  to  take  notes  from  which  to  write  the  report. 
As  he  listens  to  the  speaker's  words,  he  writes  down  the 
important  statements  which  he  wishes  to  quote  and  enough 
facts  and  figures  to  be  worked  into  a  summary.  (4)  Some 
reporters  with  sufficient  practice  learn  to  write  a  '^running 
story"  as  they  listen  to  the  speech.  That  is,  while  listening, 
they  write  out  the  quotations  and  summaries  so  completely 
that  their  notes  may  be  used  as  ^^copy"  without  rewriting. 

In  our  speech  reporting  we  shall  use  the  third  method. 
We  shall  listen  to  the  address,  taking  notes  and  writing  a 
report  afterward.  A  knowledge  of  shorthand,  by  the  way, 
is  not  necessary;  it  would  be  of  value,  but  few  reporters 
know  or  use  shorthand.  What  the  speech  reporter  needs 
most  is  an  alert  mind.  As  he  cannot  write  as  fast  as  the 
speaker  talks,  he  must  learn  (1)  to  recognize  important 
statements,  (2)  to  retain  them  in  his  mind  long  enough 
to  write  them  down,  and  (3)  to  listen  to  succeeding  re- 
marks as  he  writes. 

Essentials  Sought. — The  chief  difficulty  is  to  know  how 
much  to  take  down.     Obviously,  since  the  report  will  be 


REPORTING  SPEECHES  165 

miicli  shorter  than  the  address,  it  is  necessary  to  write 
down  only  part  of  it,  perhaps  one  sentence  out  of  ten.  Xot 
all  that  is  said  is  of  equal  value ;  some  sentences  are  sig- 
nificant, others  are  merely  explanatory.  It  rests  with  the 
reporter's  intelligence  and  alertness  to  distinguish  between 
them.  If  the  speech  is  an  orderly  one,  written  after  a 
definite  outline,  the  reporter  may  watch  for  summaries 
or  topic  sentences  that  round  out  each  part  of  the  discus- 
sion. If  it  is  extemporaneous  and  without  definite  arrange- 
ment, he  must  rely  upon  his  own  interest  and  the  attitude 
of  the  audience  in  selecting  significant  statements. 

Complete  Sentences. — The  writing  of  the  report,  as  will 
be  seen  later,  requires  that  much  material  be  quoted 
directly,  since  direct  quotation  is  of  greater  interest  than 
indirect  quotation  or  summary.  But  to  use  direct  quota- 
tion in  writing  the  report,  the  reporter  will  need  to  have 
in  his  notes  many  complete  sentences,  since  it  is  not  con- 
sidered good  form  to  quote  part  of  a  sentence  in  the 
speaker's  words  and  finish  it  in  the  writer's  words.  The 
writing  will  be  greatly  simplified,  therefore,  if  the  re- 
porter makes  a  conscious  effort  to  obtain  complete  sentences 
in  his  notes.  Once  he  has  started  to  write  down  a  state- 
ment, he  should  complete  it,  even  if  that  involves  losing 
two  or  three  statements  that  follow  it. 

Statement  for  Lead. — As  he  takes  notes  and  listens  to 
the  speech,  the  reporter  must  also  be  thinking  of  the  lead 
that  is  to  be  written  later  as  an  introduction  to  the  report. 
He  must  be  trying  to  obtain  a  comprehensive  view  of  the 
entire  address  so  that  he  will  know  what  statement  to  quote 
as  representative  of  the  entire  speech  or  what  facts  to 
include  in  his  summary  of  it.  In  this  comprehensive  view, 
he  must  keep  in  mind  the  fairness  and  truthfulness  of  his 


166  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

report.  He  must  guard  against  emphasizing  a  side  issue 
in  the  address  or  playing  np  a  chance  remark.  The  reader's 
idea  of  the  address  will  be  based  almost  entirely  upon  the 
statement  emphasized  in  the  lead,  and  the  writer  must 
take  care  to  use  a  statement  that  will  give  a  fair  impres- 
sion. 

Write  at  Once. — It  is  always  well  to  write  the  report 
immediately  after  the  speech  is  over.  No  matter  how  com- 
plete the  notes  may  be,  they  will  become  ''cold"  and  nnin- 
•telligible  after  a  few  hours.  If  the  reporter  writes  his 
story  at  once,  he  will  be  able  to  remember  enough  of  the 
context  to  expand  upon  his  notes  and  give  a  fairer  and 
more  comprehensive  report  of  the  address. 

EXERCISES  XVIII 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  analyze  a  speech  report  in 
the  newspaper.  How  much  is  in  direct  quotation?  Is 
the  rest  summary  or  indirect  quotation?  How  many 
sentences  of  direct  quotation  did  the  reporter  obtain  ?  Is 
it  coherent?  Is  the  statement  in  the  lead  tied  in  with 
the  rest? 

Tuesday 

1.  Attend  and  take  notes  on  a  public  lecture — a  sermon, 
an  address  by  a  professional  lecturer,  a  teacher's  lecture, 
a  talk  in  assembly,  an  address  at  a  public  meeting,  or 
any  other  speech  delivered  from  a  platform.  Obtain  as 
many  complete  sentences  of  quotation  as  you  can. 

2.  In  class,  select  a  statement  from  among  the  quotations 
that  might  be  used  in  the  lead  as  an  embodiment  of 
the  speaker's  ideas.  Write  in  one  sentence  a  summary 
that  to  you  digests  the  speech  adequately  for  use  as  the 
lead. 


REPORTING  SPEECHES  167 

Wednesday 

1.  Eeport  another  address.  Test  the  value  of  your  notes 
by  asking  a  classmate  to  try  to  read  them  and  get  Q 
comprehensive  idea  of  the  lecture  from  them. 

2.  In  class,  the  teacher  will  read  a  short  address  and  the 
class  will  take  notes.     Eesults  will  be  compared. 

Thursday  Xewspaper  Study 

Local  Ends 

Every  newspaper  editor  knows  that  his  readers  are  much 
more  interested  in  news  of  familiar  persons  and  places — local 
news  of  the  home  city — than  in  news  from  outside,  unless 
the  latter  is  nation-wide  in  interest.  That  is  why  he  devotes 
a  front-page  column  to  a  fire  on  Main  street  in  Home  City 
while  he  buries  on  an  inside  page  a  brief  account  of  a  larger 
fire  in  another  city.  He  is  right,  of  course — we  are  more 
interested  in  things  happening  near  us.  In  the  same  way, 
news  from  the  outside  is  much  more  interesting,  if,  in  some 
way,  it  touches  the  home  city.  The  city  editor  searches  the 
telegraph  and  correspondents'  dispatches  for  mention  of  per- 
sons from  the  home  city  or  known  in  the  home  city.  In  the 
account  of  a  railroad  wreck  he  finds  a  home-town  name  among 
the  list  of  injured;  in  a  Congressional  report  he  finds  a 
reference  to  a  former  home-city  citizen;  in  a  far-away  busi- 
ness transaction  he  finds  mention  of  a  local  firm.  These 
home-town  references  he  calls  "local  ends,"  and,  whenever 
he  finds  one,  he  rewrites  the  lead  of  the  dispatch  so  as  to 
place  the  local  end  first.  In  addition,  he  has  his  staff  watch 
the  "exchanges" — newspapers  from  other  cities — for  refer- 
ences to  the  home  city  that  may  be  developed  into  local  ends. 
His  search,  carried  to  extremes  in  some  newspapers,  has 
given  rise  to  many  stock  jokes  about  "the  former  home- 
town boy  now  grown  to  fame  in  the  city."  But  his  idea  is 
right. 


168  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

1.  In  one  issue  of  a  newspaper  mark  the  articles  that  are 
local  ends  of  news  from  other  cities,  or  at  least  are 
based  on  interest  in  local  ends. 

2.  In  the  same  issue  compare  the  amount  of  space  devoted 
to  local  news  and  to  outside  news. 

3.  Look  through  a  newspaper  published  in  a  nearby  city 
in  search  of  ideas  for  local  ends  to  be  followed  in  the 
home  paper. 

4.  List  possibilities  for  local  ends  that  you  find  in  an  issue 
of  a  weekly  news-digest  periodical — that  is,  the  applica- 
tion of  national  problems  and  issues  to  the  home  city. 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  List  the  rulers  of  the  following  nations:  England, 
France,  Germany,  Spain,  Italy,  Sweden,  Norway,  Hol- 
land, Belgium,  China,  Japan,  and  Mexico.  How  long 
has  each  been  in  power?  (See  almanac.)  Memorize 
and  file  notes. 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test.  "^^Tiat  form  of  govern- 
ment has  each  of  these  nations?  What  wars  has  it 
waged  in  the  last  ten  years?  What  are  the  principal 
industries  of  each?    Other  current  news. 


CHAPTEK  XIX 
WRITING  SPEECH  REPORTS 

After  an  address  has  been  ^^covered" — that  is,  after  the 
reporter  has  listened  to  it  and  taken  notes — the  writing 
of  the  report  is  merely  composition  with  one  or  two  special 
considerations.  Since  a  speech  report  is  a  news-storj  ac- 
count of  the  address,  it  is  written  much  like  the  news-story 
accounts  of  other  events.  This  method,  as  pointed  out 
before,  is  characterized  by:  (1)  a  summary  lead,  (2)  a 
newsy  feature  in  the  first  line,  and  (3)  a  crowding  of  the 
interest  toward  the  beginning.  The  part  of  the  composi- 
tion that  requires  the  most  attention  here  is  the  summary 
lead. 

Writing  the  Lead. — Since  the  purpose  of  a  speech  report 
is  to  tell  what  the  speaker  said,  the  lead  usually  includes 
a  summary  of  his  remarks  or  a  quoted  statement  that  em- 
bodies the  gist  of  his  address.  Immediately  following  this 
summary  or  quotation  the  reporter  tells  who  the  speaker 
was,  when  and  where  he  spoke,  and  any  special  circum- 
stances worth  noting.  The  newsy  feature  here  is  the  sum- 
mary or  the  quotation,  and  it  is  always  placed  at  the 
beginning  unless  the  speaker's  name  or  another  element  is 
more  interesting.  Just  how  this  is  done  may  be  illustrated 
by  a  newspaper  lead  written  in  various  ways,  but  it  must 
be  understood  that  these  do  not  include  all  possibilities, 
for  originality  is  quite  as  valuable  in  speech  reporting  as 
in  other  journalistic  writing.     The  following  examples 

169 


170 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


illustrate  some  of  the  more  common  forms  used  in  every- 
day newspaper  work. 

1.  Direct  Quotation  of  a  Sentence. — ^When  the  address 
contains  a  statement  that  sums  up  the  speaker's  ideas  or 
an  interesting  epitome  of  them^  that  sentence  is  often 
quoted  directly  at  the  beginning  of  the  lead : 


"The  mission  of  the  American  news- 
paper is  to  tell  the  truth,  to  stand  for 
high  ideals,  and  to  strive  to  have  those 
ideals  adopted  by  the  public,"  said  Major 
V.  C.  Roberts,  publisher  of  the  Newton 
Press,  in  an'  address  on  "Newspapers 
That  Lead,"  delivered  before  the  Univer- 
sity Press  Club  last  night. 


2.  Direct  Quotation  of  a  Paragraph. — If  the  quoted 
summary  or  statement  consists  of  more  than  one  sentence, 
it  should  be  presented  as  a  paragraph  of  direct  quotation 
with  the  explanatory  matter  set  off  in  a  separate  para- 
graph: 

"The  mission  of  the  American  news- 
paper is  to  tell  the  truth,  to  stand  for 
high  ideals,  and  to  strive  to  have  those 
ideals  adopted  by  the  public.  The  editor 
may  make  his  position  in  his  community 
one  of  broad  influence  and  high  esteem." 

So  declared  Major  V.  C.  Roberts,  pub- 
lisher of  the  Newton  Press,  in  his  address 
on  the  subject,  "Newspapers  That  Lead," 
which  he  delivered  before  the  University 
Press  Club  last  night. 

3.  Indirect  Quotation  Beginning. — Sometimes  the  re- 
porter, wishing  to  condense  the  statement,  presents  it  in 
indirect  quotation,  in  the  form  of  a  tlmt-claiise.     A  more 


WRITING   SPEECH  REPORTS  171 

extensive  summary  often  requires  two  or  three  ^^a^-clauses, 
embodying  the  various  phases  of  the  address,  as  illustrated 
in  the  second  example : 

(a)  That  the  mission  of  the  American 
newspaper  is  to  tell  the  truth  and  to 
stand  for  high  ideals  which  it  strives  to 
have  adopted  by  the  public  was  the  state- 
ment made  by  Major  V.  C.  Roberts,  pub- 
lisher of  the  Newton  Press,  in  speaking 
on  "Newspapers  That  Lead,"  at  the 
University  Press  Club  meeting  last  night. 


(b)  That  the  mission  of  the  American 
newspaper  is  to  stand  for  high  ideals 
and  that  an  editor  may  make  his  position 
in  his  community  one  of  high  esteem, 
were  points  emphasized  by  Major  V.  C. 
Roberts,  of  the  Newton  Press,  in  a  talk 
on  "Newspapers  That  Lead,"  before  the 
University  Press  Club  last  night. 

4.  Summary  Beginning. — A  reporter  sometimes  sum- 
marizes the  speech  in  his  own  words  in  a  complete  state- 
ment with  explanatory  matter  added: 

A  newspaper  editor,  by  standing  for 
high  ideals  and  urging  them  upon  the 
public,  may  make  his  position  one  of 
high  esteem,  according  to  Major  V.  C. 
Roberts,  publisher  of  the  Newton  Press, 
who  talked  on  "Newspapers  That  Lead," 
before  the  members  of  the  University 
Press  Club  last  night. 

5.  Keynote  Begmmng.—Oi  the  writer  may  summarize 
the  address  in  a  noun  and  its  modifiers  used  as  the  subject 
of  the  principal  verb : 


172 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


Higher  ideals  in  newspaper  publishing 
were  urged  upon  editors  by  Major  V.  C. 
Roberts,  publisher  of  the  Newton  Press, 
when  he  spoke  on  "Newspapers  That 
Lead"  at  the  University  Press  Club  last 
night. 


'6.  Pariicipial  Beginning, — ^Another  variation  of  the 
summary  begimiing  is  the  use  of  a  participial  phrase  as 
the  opening,  thus: 


Urging  newspaper  editors  to  stand  for 
high  ideals  and  to  strive  to  have  those 
ideals  adopted  by  the  public,  Major  V. 
C.  Roberts,  of  the  Newton  Press,  last 
night  told  members  of  the  University 
Press  Club  that  an  editor  maj^  make  his 
position  in  the  community  one  of  broad 
influence. 


7.  Speaker  s  Name. — When  the  name  of  the  speaker  is 
of  greater  interest  than  what  he  said,  it  may  he  used  at 
the  beginning.  Even  so,  it  is  well  to  place  a  summary 
at  the  end,  without  quotation  marks: 


Major  V.  C.  Roberts,  publisher  of  the 
Newton  Press,  speaking  before  the  Uni- 
versity Press  Club  last  night,  defined  the 
mission  of  the  American  newspapers  as 
a  matter  of  standing  for  high  ideals  and 
urging  those  ideals  upon  the  public. 


8.  Title  of  Address. — If  the  title  of  the  speech  consti- 
tutes a  good  summary  it  may  be  placed  first : 


"Newspapers  That  Lead,"  was  the  sub- 
ject  selected   by   Major   V.    C.    Roberts, 
publisher  of  the  Newton  Press,   for  his 
i  talk  before  the  Universitv  Press  Club  last 


WRITING   SPEECH   REPORTS  173 

night,  and  he  told  his  audience  the  es- 
sence of  leadership  as  he  sees  it  after 
twenty  years  at  the  editorial  desk. 

9.  Circumstances, — Rarely  the  circumstances  under 
which  the  address  was  delivered  are  of  enough  interest  to 
be  used  at  the  beginning: 

Before  fifty  young  men  and  women  in 
the  University  Press  Club  who  are  looking 
forward  to  newspaper  careers,  Major  V. 
C.  Roberts,  publisher  of  the  Newton 
Press,  last  night  sketched  the  lessons  con- 
cerning "Newspapers  That  Lead"  which 
he  has  learned  in  twenty  years  of  editorial 
service. 

The  Running  Story. — ^After  the  lead  has  been  completed, 
the  running  stoi^y  presents  the  speaker's  ideas  in  quotation 
and  summary.  Direct  quotation  is  more  interesting  than 
summary,  but  both  are  needed  to  avoid  monotony. 

It  is  not  considered  good  form,  however,  to  mix  direct 
quotation  and  summary  in  the  same  sentence,  or  even  in 
the  same  paragraph.  The  report  should  be  made  up  of 
solid  paragraphs  of  direct  quotation  and  solid  paragraphs 
of  summary.  Once  the  writer  has  started  a  paragraph  in 
one  form,  he  should  complete  it  in  the  same  form.  Sum- 
mary means,  furthermore,  a  short  synopsis  digesting  ex- 
tensive portions  of  the  address  in  a  few  sentences.  The 
writer  should  take  care  in  this  summary  that  he  is  actually 
presenting  and  explaining  the  points  made  by  the  speaker, 
and  not  merely  listing  them.  For  instance,  this  sentence 
gives  the  reader  little  information :  "The  question  of  pre- 
paredness was  taken  up  and  discussed  fully/'  A  true  sum- 
mary would  read  as  follows :  ''The  problem  of  preparedness 


174  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

is  a  national  issue,  the  speaker  pointed  out,  which  will  have 
a  great  effect  upon  the  future  of  both  political  parties." 
The  reporter  must  not  forget  also  that  he  may  make  good 
use  of  indirect  quotation,  in  the  form  of  ^/ia/-clauses,  to 
break  the  monotony  of  quotation  and  summary. 

Reference  to  Speaker. — Throughout  the  report,  it  is  well 
to  recall  the  speaker's  name  frequently  to  remind  the 
reader  of  the  authority  for  the  statements,  as  well  as  to 
obtain  the  added  interest  lent  by  the  speaker's  presence. 
A  long  report  without  repeated  references  to  the  speaker 
is  like  a  lecture  in  the  dark ;  each  reminder  of  the  speaker's 
name  turns  the  lights  upon  him  and  brings  back  his  per- 
sonality. Some  editors  carry  this  to  the  extent  of  de- 
scribing the  speaker  and  telling  how  he  talked  and  ges- 
tured in  order  to  increase  the  narrative  feeling  in  the 
report.  The  usual  way  to  bring  the  speaker  into  the  report 
is  by  the  use  of  ''said  the  lecturer,"  ''Mr.  Smith  pointed 
out,"  "declared  Professor  Jones,"  and  similar  expressions. 
They  should  not  be  used  too  frequently,  not  oftener  than 
once  in  two  or  three  paragraphs,  and  an  attempt  should 
be  made  to  obtain  variety  of  verbs  to  relieve  the  over- 
worked "said." 

Quotation  Marks. — Special  attention  should  be  paid  to 
the  usage  of  quotation  marks  seen  in  present-day  American 
newspapers  and  magazines.  In  a  continuous  quotation  of 
more  than  one  paragraph  a  quotation  mark  is  placed  at 
the  beginning  of  each  paragraph  and  at  the  end  of  the 
last  jparagrafli  only.  To  place  together  sentences  from 
various  parts  of  the  address  constitutes,  of  course,  a  con- 
tinuous quotation.  A  change  from  quotation  to  summary 
or  indirect  quotation,  however,  requires  a  quotation  mark 
at  the  end  of  the  direct  quotation,  and  vice  versa.     In  the 


WRITING   SPEECH   REPORTS  175 

same  way,  marks  must  be  used  to  set  off  "said  the  speaker/' 
and  similar  explanatory  matter  thrown  in.  Single  quo- 
tation marks  are  used  to  set  off  a  quotation  within  a  quo- 
tation; another  quotation  within  this  single-quoted  part 
requires  double  marks  again. 

Writing  from  Manuscript. — In  writing  a  speech  report 
from  a  copy  of  the  speaker's  manuscript  the  usual  method 
is:  (1)  to  read  the  entire  speech  to  learn  its  content;  (2) 
to  mark  the  parts  that  are  to  be  quoted  and  the  points' 
that  are  to  be  included  in  summary  form;  (3)  to  select 
the  quotation  for  the  lead  or  the  material  to  be  summarized 
at  the  beginning  and  mark  it  "lead" ;  and  (4)  to  number 
the  marked  paragraphs  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  to 
appear.  It  is  not  necessary  to  quote  them  in  the  order 
in  which  the  speaker  gives  them  so  long  as  the  logic  is 
clear;  often  the  writer  works  back  through  the  speech 
from  the  end  toward  the  beginning.  After  the  marking, 
the  rest  is  a  matter  of  copying  or  of  cutting  out  the  parts 
to  be  quoted,  pasting  them  on  copy  paper,  and  making  the 
necessaiy  connections. 

Running  Account. — The  "running  story"  of  a  speech  is 
done  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  the  report  written  from 
notes,  except  that  the  reporter  writes  his  story — quotations 
and  summary — as  he  listens  to  the  speech  and  needs  only 
to  correct  his  manuscript  before  turning  it  in  as  a  report. 
The  lead  is  usually  written  last.  This  method  requires 
more  practice  and  skill  than  the  others. 

EXERCISES  XIX 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  clip  as  many  speech  reports 
as  you  can  find  in  two  newspapers  and  classify  their 


176  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

leads.    Which  forms  predominate  ?    Is  the  most  effective 
form  used  in  each  case? 

Tuesday 

1.  Attend  and  take  notes  on  a  public  address.  Imme- 
diately afterward  write  a  report  according  to  the  chapter 
instructions.  Check  over  the  quotation  marks  before 
handing  it  in  and  see  that  direct  quotation  and  sum- 
mary are  not  combined  in  the  same  sentence  or  para- 
graph. Try  writing  the  lead  in  the  nine  forms  sug- 
gested. 

2.  In  class,  the  nine  leads  will  be  tried  on  the  board. 

'Wednesday. 

1.  The  teacher  w^ill  give  out  printed  copies  of  a  school, 
city,  county,  or  state  officer's  annual  report  or  special 
message.  Prepare  a  500-word  report  of  it,  using  as 
much  direct  quotation  as  possible. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Gathering  Election  Returns 

Few  citizens  realize  that  in  the  election  machinery  of  our 
government  there  are  no  official  facilities  for  gathering 
election  returns  on  election  day.  AVhen,  on  the  morning  after 
election,  you  read  the  results  from  all  parts  of  the  country, 
remember  that  the  gathering  and  tabulating  of  returns  is 
done  entirely  by  the  newspapers  and  press  associations.  To 
be  sure,  some  days  or  weeks  later  the  board  of  canvassers 
officially  announces  the  results;  in  a  Presidential  election,  as 
civics  teaches  you,  the  electors  meet  and  name  the  President 
some  months  after  the  newspapers  have  announced  his  elec- 
tion. All  this  is  because  our  constitution  was  written  before 
railroads,  telegraph,  wireless,  and  aeroplanes  were  invented. 
As  the  need  of  quick  returns  arose,  the  newspapers,  lacking 
official  means,  began  to  gather  the  results  and  now  have  a 
jsystem  that  is  essentially  simple  although  costly  to  the  news- 


WRITING  SPEECH  REPORTS  177 

papers.  Each  newspaper  gathers  and  tabulates  the  returns 
of  its  conunnnity  from  the  polling  places  of  city  and  county 
and  telegraphs  them  to  the  press  association's  headquarters 
in  the  state.  There,  or  in  some  city  newspaper  office,  tables 
are  kept  for  the  entire  state  and,  combined  with  those  from 
other  states,  are  sent  back  to  the  home  communities.  The 
tables  kept  are  diagrams  with  the  names  of  candidates  across 
the  top  and  the  list  of  voting  districts  down  the  side,  or  vice 
versa,  and  the  figures  are  put  in  as  fast  as  received  from 
reporters  at  the  polls.  Long  before  all  the  figures  are  in  or 
the  tables  are  complete,  it  is  possible  to  forecast  and  announce 
the  probable  result. 

1.  List  the  county  and  state  ufiices  for  which  candidates 
will  be  selected  at  your  next  election. 

2.  From  a  city  map  list  the  voting  precincts  in  your  city. 

3.  From  the  state  blue  book  list  the  voting  precincts  of 
your  county. 

4.  With  this  material,  plan  a  table  to  record  the  county 
vote  at  the  next  election,  with  candidates'  names  across 
top  and  polling  districts  listed  down  the  side. 

5.  Find  in  the  newspaper  files  the  tables  published  after 
the  last  election  and  study  them. 

Friday  x4.ccukacy  Exercise 

Quite  as  important  as  a  knowledge  of  the  government  and 
principal  citizens  of  a  city  is  a  familiarity  with  its  geography, 
industries,  and  general  interests.  The  subsequent  exercises 
will  guide  you  in  becoming  acquainted  with  this  field  so  that 
you  will  know  it  as  a  reporter  knows  it. 

1.  List  the  public  buildings  in  the  city.  Where  is  each 
located  and  when  was  it  erected?  Unless  the  city  is 
large,  this  survey  should  include  schoolhouses  and  hos- 
pitals as  well  as  governmental  buildings.  The  study 
will  be  more  effective  if  you  get  a  good  map  and  locate 
the  buildings  on  it. 


178  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test.  "What  buildings  have 
been  mentioned  in  the  newspapers  this  week?  What 
important  ofiQces  and  news  sources  are  in  each?  AVhat 
is  the  quickest  route  to  each  from  the  school,  on  foot 
or  otherwise  ?  Has  your  city  adequate  public  buildings  ? 
Current  news. 


CHAPTEK  XX 
WRITING  INTERVIEW  STORIES 

Closely  related  to  tlie  speech  report,  studied  In  tlie  last 
two  chapters,  is  the  verbatim  interview  story  of  American 
newspapers.  Like  the  speech  report,  it  is  an  account  of 
someone's  opinion,  of  what  someone  said.  It  is  therefore 
written  in  much  the  same  way  and  in  print  can  be  dis- 
tinguished only  by  one  or  two  earmarks. 

There  are  two  fundamental  differences  between  an  inter- 
view and  a  speech  report.  Both  are  accounts  of  something 
said,  but  the  circumstances  of  the  statements  are  different. 

1.  A  speech  report  is  an  account  of  what  a  man  said 
on  a  platform  before  an  audience ;  it  is  a  public  utterance 
framed  in  words  which  the  speaker  wished  to  give  to  the 
public  and  delivered  with  the  expectation  of  quotation. 
An  interview,  however,  is  a  report  of  a  conversation  be- 
tween a  public  man  and  a  reporter;  in  fact,  it  is  usually 
the  man's  answers  to  a  series  of  questions  propounded  by 
a  reporter.  The  reporter,  therefore,  plays  a  far  greater 
part  in  the  interview,  although  he  is  not  mentioned.  While 
reporting  an  address,  he  may  report  only  what  the  speaker 
chances  to  say.  Talking  face  to  face  with  the  speaker,  he 
may,  by  his  questions,  guide  the  conversation  into  subjects 
in  w^hich  his  newspaper  is  particularly  interested. 

2.  Because  of  the  opportunity  to  question  the  speaker 
and  guide  his  remarks  into  a  definite  channel,  the  inter- 
view is  more  closely  related  to  current  news;  it  has  a 

179 


180  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

timely  theme.  It  is  rare  that  an  interviewer  allows  tlie 
speaker  to  talk  about  anything  that  occurs  to  him.  The 
interviewer  has  a  particular  subject  on  which  he  wishes 
the  man  to  talk  and  goes  to  him  to  get  his  answers  on 
planned  questions  on  that  subject.  This  particular  sub- 
ject— the  reason  for  the  interview — is  usually  evident  in 
the  report  and  is  the  feature  that  distinguishes  it  from  a 
speech  report.  The  two  kinds  of  reports  may  be  com- 
pared when  a  prominent  man  comes  to  town  and  the  local 
newspaper  prints  in  the  same  issue  both  an  interview  with 
him  and  a  report  of  his  public  address. 

The  word  ^'interview"  needs  definition  because,  as  it  is 
used  here,  only  one  kind  of  interview  is  meant.  Every 
conversation  between  a  reporter  and  any  one  else  is  called 
an  interview.  But  an  interview  nearly  always  is  merely 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  facts  or  information,  and 
little  evidence  of  the  interview,  as  such,  appears  in  the 
article.  The  interview,  in  the  sense  discussed  in  this 
chapter,  is  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  statement  to  be 
quoted  in  verbatim  form.  The  ^'interview  story"  is  there- 
fore the  report  of  this  latter  kind. 

Obtaining  Interviews. — The  art  of  interviewing  is  not 
something  that  may  be  learned  in  one  or  two  assignments ; 
it  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  tasks  assigned  to  reporters. 
The  Y/riting  phase  of  it — the  phase  in  which  we  are  espe- 
cially interested — is  a  small  part.  But  for  the  sake  of 
obtaining  the  practice  involved  in  this  w^riting,  it  is  worth 
while  to  attempt  to  obtain  two  or  three  interviews  and 
perhaps  to  appreciate  the  difficulties  of  interviewing.  A 
few  hints  that  will  aid  beginners  are  therefore  in  order, 
but  they  must  not  be  considered  an  exhaustive  treatment 
of  the  problem,  '^How  to  interview." 


WRITING  INTERVIEW  STORIES  181 

Reporter's  Manner — Interviewing  is  difficult  because  it 
depends  much  on  personality.  One  person  becomes  a  good 
interviewer  easily  just  as  he  becomes  a  '^good  mixer'' 
without  conscious  effort;  another  can  never  become  an 
interviewer  because  he  lacks  certain  qualities.  Success 
depends  upon  one's  manner  of  approach,  and  yet  a  good 
interviewer  uses  a  different  manner  in  almost  every  dif- 
ferent case.  He  instantly  ^'sizes  up"  the  man  whom  he  is 
to  interview  and  adapts  his  manner  and  his  method  to  suit 
the  situation.  Long  practice  gives  him  tact  and  confidence. 
The  beginner,  however,  not  knowing  w^hether  he  has  the 
right  personality  or  the  tact  to  interview  successfully,  can 
only  go  at  the  task  in  a  straightforward  manner  and  do  his 
best.  If  he  is  courteous  and  confident,  he  will  not  fail 
utterly.  His  best  method  is  to  state  his  business  at  the 
outset — to  tell  w^ho  he  is,  what  he  has  come  for,  and  to 
propound  the  questions  which  he  wishes  answered.  Every 
interview  will  teach  him  something  of  the  art  and  increase 
his  confidence  so  that  after  sufiicient  practice  he  may  be 
able  to  obtain  difficult  interviews  like  those  printed  every 
day  in  American  newspapers. 

Note  Taking. — One  of  his  chief  problems  will  be  to 
remember  statements  obtained  long  enough  to  get  them  on 
paper.  To  write  them  dowm  as  the  man  talks  is  usually 
out  of  the  question.  Reporters  do  not  use  notebooks  and 
seldom  do  they  write  in  the  presence  of  a  person  inter- 
viewed. To  be  sure,  they  always  have  a  few  sheets  of 
copy  paper  hidden  in  a  pocket  and  occasionally,  if  circum- 
stances favor,  jot  do\vn  sig-nificant  facts  and  figures.  Some 
men  who  are  frequently  interviewed  prefer  to  have  the 
reporter  write  do^\m  what  they  say ;  others  become  reticent 
at  the  sight  of  a  pencil.    To  know  whether  to  write  during 


182  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

the  interview  is  a  part  of  the  art.  The  beginner,  however, 
will  do  well  to  devise  some  scheme  to  assist  his  memory. 
Such  a  method  is  as  follows : 

List  of  Questions. — To  plan  the  interview  in  advance 
will  not  only  assist  the  memory  but  will  result  in  a  more 
pointed  interview.  Since  the  reporter  is  interviewing  with 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  opinions  on  a  particular  subject 
and  since  the  opinions  must  be  obtained  by  questions,  the 
reporter  will  do  well  to  plan  his  questions  beforehand. 
After  thinking  the  matter  over,  it  is  easy  to  formulate 
half  a  dozen  questions  that  will  bring  out  the  statements 
desired,  for  the  reporter  knows  in  advance  just  about  what 
the  man  thinks.  The  reporter  should  write  down  his  ques- 
tions beforehand  in  the  order  which  seems  most  effective 
and  memorize  them;  then  he  asks  them  one  after  another 
during  the  interview.  Perhaps  the  man  talks  for  a  long 
time  on  one  question,  but  when  he  finishes  the  reporter 
has  another  question  ready.  He  may  refuse  to  answer 
some  of  the  questions,  but  the  reporter  has  still  others  in 
reserve.  After  the  interview  is  over,  the  reporter  nearly 
always  can  easily  recall  what  was  said  by  referring  to  his 
written  questions.  To  reread  the  questions  will  bring  back 
everything  said.  This  method  makes  the  interview  more 
pointed  because  it  keeps  the  reporter  from  wandering  from 
the  subject  and  aids  him  in  selecting  what  he  wishes  from 
all  the  other  things  talked  about. 

Writing  the  Interview  Story. — After  the  interview  has 
been  obtained,  the  interview  story  presents  the  same  prob- 
lem as  the  speech  report.  It  is  a  task  of  writing — 
in  the  form  of  direct  quotation,  indirect  quotation,  and 
summary — the  statements  made  during  the  interview. 
Since  the  form  of  the  statements  and  their  order  rests  more 


WRITING   INTERVIEW  STORIES  183 

largely  with  the  writer,  it  is  well  to  outline  the  material 
in  advance  in  a  unified,  well-organized  way. 

Summary  Lead. — The  lead  is  like  the  speech  report 
lead,  since  it  usually  begins  with  a  quoted  statement  or  a 
summary.  For  its  form  the  writer  may  follow  any  of  the 
model  leads  presented  for  speech  reports  in  Chapter  XIX. 
The  distinction  between  the  interview  and  the  public  ad- 
dress, however,  is  ordinarily  brought  out  in  the  lead  of 
the  interview  story.  That  is,  the  lead  tells  why  the  man 
was  interviewed  or  gives  the  question  of  current  news  on 
which  he  was  interviewed.  This  tells  the  reader  that  it  is 
an  interview  and  tells  it  so  clearly  that  it  is  not  necessary 
to  say  that  it  is  an  interview  or  that  the  words  were  spoken 
to  a  reporter.  In  fact,  few  newspapers  encourage  the  use 
of  the  words  "reporter"  or  "interviewer"  in  such  a  story. 
The  following  are  two  types  of  interview  leads : 

Denying  that  the  city  park  board  op- 
poses the  relocation  of  Pershing  boule- 
vard, as  recommended  by  the  city  plan 
commission,  Dr.  James  R.  Dudley,  presi- 
dent of  the  board,  today  gave  his  en- 
dorsement to  every  item  on  the  report 
that  was  presented  to  the  city  council  by 
the  commission  on  Tuesday  night. 

"I  will  not  only  say  that  I  endorse 
these  improvements  suggested  by  the  city 
planners  but  will  promise  to  fight  for 
their  adoption,"  he  replied  when  asked 
concerning  the  rumor  that  he  and  the 
park  board  oppose  radical  changes  in  the 
city's  traffic  routes  at  this  time.  "I  might 
say  further  that  I  have  dreamed  for  many 
years  of  such  a"  pleasure  drive  as  the 
proposed  Pershing  boulevard,"  he  added 
with  a  smile. 


184 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


"If  the  crop  should  be  short  in  bushels, 
it  will  be  long  in  dollars — and  it  is  dollars 
that  count." 

This  is  the  judgment  on  the  business 
situation  expressed  this  afternoon  by 
Frank  J.  Ward,  president  of  the  Mer- 
cantile Trust  company  of  Omaha,  who 
was  in  the  city  today  in  conference  with 
local  bankers. 


The  Running-  Story In  the  body  of  the  interview  storv 

the  reporter  may  safely  follow  the  suggestions  made  con- 
cerning speech  reporting,  except  that  he  has^  greater  oppor- 
tunity to  rearrange  and  organize  the  statements.  He  de- 
velops the  statements  in  the  order  of  importance,  based  on 
a  careful  outline.  Needless  to  say,  he  devotes  the  early 
part  of  the  article  to  elaborating  the  phase  of  the  subject 
emphasized  in  the  lead.  Whether  to  bring  the  reporter 
into  the  article  or  to  mention  the  questions  depends  upon 
the  occasion.  It  is  not  usually  done,  although  on  rare 
occasions,  especially  when  the  man  interviewed  was  re- 
luctant to  answer  the  questions,  the  reporter  seeks  effect 
by  repeating  the  questions  and  the  reluctant  answers.  It 
is  always  permissible  to  mold  the  content  of  the  question 
into  the  reply ;  for  example,  if  the  reporter  asks,  ^'Do  you 
believe  in  commission  government  for  this  city  ?"  and  the 
man  replies,  ^'Yes,  decidedly,"  the  reporter  may  write, 
^'  'I  believe  decidedly  in  commission  government  for  thia 
city,'  said  Mr.  Smith.''  Just  as  in  speech  reports,  it  is 
desirable  to  use  both  quotation  and  summary  for  the  sake 
of  variety  and  to  keep  them  in  separate  paragraphs.  It  is 
possible  to  introduce  a  narrative  tone  through  the  verbs 
and  through  some  action  or  description  of  the  conversation 
between  the  speaker  and  the  reporter.    In  interviews  of  the 


WRITING   INTERVIEW  STORIES  185 

''human  interest"  type  it  is  not  umisnal  to  intersperse 
descriptions  of  the  speaker  and  his  mannerisms  among  the 
quotations.  This  should  not  be  overdone,  however,  and 
should  never  impede  the  real  purpose  of  the  article — to  tell 
what  the  man  said. 


EXERCISES  XX 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  discuss  interview  stories 
found  in  newspapers.  Are  the  leads  effective  ?  What 
is  the  news  reason  or  timely  occasion  for  each  inter- 
view ? 

Tuesday 

1.  Work  out  the  questions  to  be  asked  in  obtaining  one 

of  the  following  interviews.    Write  them  on  paper,  and 

be  ready  to  defend  them  in  class. 

(a)  Interview  with  a  member  of  the  faculty  on  the 
problem  of  more  or  less  elective  courses  in  the 
school. 

{h)  Interview  with  same  person  on  desirability  of  col- 
lege education. 

(c)  Interview  with  a  business  man  on  the  problem  of 
obtaining  greater  civic  pride  in  your  city. 

{d)  Interview  with  a  prominent  citizen  on  the  most 
important  current  national  issue. 

\Yednesday 

1.  Carry  out  one  of  the  above  interviews  and. write  the 
interview  story  by  putting  down  first  the  questions  and 
then  the  answers.  Then  try  to  work  the  answers  to- 
gether into  a  readable  continuous  article,  without  ques- 
tions.    Perhaps  try  to  get  a  narrative  tone. 

2.  In  class,  write  the  lead  for  your  interview  story  in 
each  one  of  the  nine  different  forms  suggested  in 
Chapter  XIX. 


186  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Departments 

American  newspapers  of  former  days  systematically  divided 
their  news  into  special  departments  so  that  readers  might 
know  where  to  look  for  each  kind.  Something  of  the  old 
system  may  be  seen  in  the  more  conservative  newspapers  of 
the  East.  Instead  of  the  present  arrangement  of  articles  in 
accordance  with  relative  interest  or  news  value,  all  items  were 
separated  into  such  groups  as  local  news  (likely  called  "Local 
Intelligence"),  foreign  news,  national  news,  shipping  news, 
and  similar  sections,  with  perhaps  but  one  headline  for  each 
entire  group.  Newspapers  of  today  have  largely  discarded 
the  former  system,  retaining  only  such  departments  as  sports, 
society,  etc.,  and,  when  an  article  belonging  to  one  of  these 
departments  is  of  unusual  interest,  it  may  be  taken  from  its 
group  and  placed  on  the  front  page.  Instead  of  the  former 
"news  departments,''  modern  newspapers  use  another  kind  of 
department,  made  up  of  special  material  for  certain  types  of 
readers:  for  example,  woman's  page,  business  page,  art  page, 
dramatic  section.  The  development  is  most  complete  in  the 
afternoon  papers,  and  there  the  most  novel  departments  will 
be  found.  The  newer  departments  are,  in  general,  designed 
as  a  means  of  making  the  newspaper  distinctive.  Since,  with 
extensive  cooperation  in  newsgathering,  there  is  less  chance 
for  "scoops"  and  noteworthy  distinction  in  the  news  pages, 
the  development  of  distinctive  special  departments  offers  a 
way  "to  be  different." 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  daily  departments  in  your  newspaper. 
How  many  have  special  labels  or  headings  and  dis- 
tinctive typography  ?    How  many  carry  the  name  of  the 

department  editor? 

• 

2.  To  what  extent  is  routine  news  classified  and  depart- 
mentized  ? 


WRITING   INTERVIEW  STORIES  187 

3.  Can  yon  find  an  article  that  has  outgrown  its  depart- 
ment and  found  a  place  on  the  front  page — perhaps  a 
real  estate  sale  that  would  normally  be  carried  m  a 
special  column? 

4.  What  special  readers  are  sought  in  each  special  depart- 
ment? What  departments  are  of  the  greatest  value, 
and  which,  the  least? 

5.  What  smaller  "features"  of  various  kinds  are  published 
each  day? 

6.  To  what  extent  are  these  departments  filled  by  material 
written  in  the  office  and  to  what  extent  by  syndicate 
material  ? 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  On  your  city  map  trace  the  routes  of  all  street  railway 
lines  and  the  principal  lines  of  auto  traffic.  Note  loca- 
tion of  railway  stations  and  other  centers  of  traffic  and 
their  relation  to  these  routes.  Note  location  of  boule- 
vards or  other  finely  paved  streets.  Practice  mapping 
out  the  quickest  route,  on  foot,  cab,  or  trolley,  from  one 
of  the  newspaper  offices  to  various  parts  of  the  city. 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test  and  oral  discussion.  What 
faults  do  you  see  in  your  city's  traffic  routes.  Suggest 
remedies.  What  are  the  most  congested  streets  and 
crossings?  Suggest  remedies.  Have  these  problems 
been  discussed  lately  in  the  newspapers  ?  What  has  your 
city  done  to  solve  the  motor  traffic  problem?  What 
city  officers  are  in  charge  of  this  problem? 


CHAPTEE  XXI 
ARTICLES  COMBINING  OPINIONS 

SligMy  more  difficult  than  the  reporting  of  one  address 
or  the  interviewing  of  one  man  is  combining  in  one  news- 
paper article  the  reports  of  a  number  of  addresses  or  a 
number  of  interviews.  But  this  is  a  common  task  in  news- 
paper writing.  The  reporting  of  a  number  of  addresses  in 
a  single  article  comes  in  the  ^ ^covering"  of  conventions, 
public  meetings,  banquets,  council  meetings,  and  various 
gatherings  at  wdiich  a  nimiber  of  speakers  aj^pear.  The 
combining  of  interviews  involves  the  obtaining  of  opinions 
of  a  number  of  prominent  persons  on  a  public  question  and 
giving  what  appears  to  be  the  consensus.  In  the  writing 
of  the  articles  certain  requirements  give  rise  to  a  more  or 
less  conventional  form. 

Reporting  Meetings. — The  reporting  of  conventions  and 
other  public  meetings  may  be  illustrated  thus:  Let  us 
imagine  that  the  State  Association  of  Xewspaper  Editors 
is  holding  its  annual  convention  and  we  are  assigned  to 
report  an  afternoon's  session.  During  the  course  of  the 
session  five  editors  speak  on  five  different  newspaper  prob- 
lems and  the  chairman  of  the  meeting  gives  short  talks 
between  addresses.  Our  problem  is  to  write  an  article  that 
sums  up  the  afternoon  session  and  reports  the  most  interest- 
ing things  said  by  the  five  speakers.  Xot  the  least  part  is 
to  give  the  names  of  the  five  speakers  and  of  other  persons 
prominent  at  the  meeting. 

188 


ARTICLES   COMBINING   OPINIONS  189 

The  first  step  in  the  assignment  is  to  attend  the  meeting 
and  to  take  notes  on  each  address  just  as  we  took  notes  in 
reporting  a  single  address.  It  is  quite  as  important  to 
obtain  the  full  name  of  each  speaker,  the  name  of  his  news- 
paper, his  town,  and  the  title  of  his  address.  (This  infor- 
mation may  of  course  be  obtained  from  the  program  or 
from  the  chairman. )  Then  we  return  to  our  typewriter  to 
write  the  article,  which  is  quite  as  much  a  problem  of 
building  as  of  writing. 

Separate  Addresses. — We  first  write  out  a  report  of  each 
address,  using  the  combination  of  summary  and  quotation 
which  we  used  in  reporting  single  addresses.  That  tells 
the  j^ublic  what  was  said,  and,  if  the  five  addresses  are 
reported  in  the  order  in  which  they  were  delivered,  the 
article  gives  a  fair  idea  of  the  meeting.  Such  a  report, 
however,  would  have  two  serious  faults  from  the  newspaper 
point  of  view:  (1)  It  w^ould  be  necessary  for  the  reader 
to  peruse  the  reports  of  all  five  speakers,  to  read  the  entire 
article,  to  be  sure  that  he  has  discovered  all  the  various 
speakers.  (2)  Unless  the  first  speaker  said  the  most  inter- 
esting things  and  said  them  early  in  his  speech,  the  most 
interesting  statements  might  be  buried  deeply  in  the 
article.  The  problem  of  summing  things  up,  of  gath^ering 
together  all  the  names  at  the  beginning  and  also  of  putting 
the  most  interesting  statement  in  the  first  paragraph,  is 
solved  by  the  use  of  a  summary  lead. 

Preliminary  Summary. — After  we  have  written  out  the 
-^YQ  speech  reports  in  full,  we  shall  write  a  paragraph  or 
two  of  summary  including  the  names  of  all  the  speakers, 
the  names  of  the  papers  and  towns  which  they  represent, 
and  the  subjects  of  their  addresses.  Perhaps  this  summary 
also  includes  something  about  other  prominent  men  who 


190 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


attended  the  meeting  and  a  sentence  or  two  summing  up 
the  afternoon's  doings.  This  summary  we  shall  place  at 
the  beginning  of  the  article,  ahead  of  the  reports  of  the 
separate  addresses.  In  this  way  we  solve  one  of  the  prob- 
lems, for  the  summary  enables  the  reader  to  find  out  who 
spoke  and  to  get  a  general  idea  of  the  session  without  read- 
ing all  the  addresses. 

Newsy  Feature, — The  second  problem,  that  of  empha- 
sizing the  most  significant  statement  made  during  the 
session,  is  solved  in  another  way.  We  shall  select  from 
the  five  addresses  the  most  interesting  statement  or  prepare 
a  summary  of  the  most  interesting  ideas  propounded  and 
write  that  into  a  paragraph  much  like  the  lead  of  a  speech 
report.  In  this  paragraph,  besides  giving  the  interesting 
idea  we  wish  to  emphasize,  we  tell  that  the  speaker  said  it 
"during  yesterday  afternoon's  session  of  the  annual  con- 
vention, etc."  This  paragraph  is  placed  ahead  of  the  sum- 
mary paragraphs.  The  result  is  a  summary  lead  consisting 
of  several  paragraphs,  the  first  of  which  emphasizes  the 
feature  of  the  meeting.     The  following  will  illustrate : 

"The  American  newspaper  of  today  is 
essentially  honest  because  the  men  who 
make  it  are  honest  and  mindful  of  the 
public  good.  The  'vices  of  the  press' 
which  the  critics  bewail  are  the  product 
of  a  noisy  minority  in  the  profession, 
distasteful  to  us  as  much  as  to  the  public. 
Unfortunate  it  is  for  us"  that  the  honest 
work  of  a  hundred  upright  newspaper 
men  is  forgotten  in  the  face  of  one 
of  the  blunders  or  'fakes'  of  our  un- 
scrupulous brethren." 

Thus  Col.  Hartland  Brown,  publisher 
of  the  Marshville  Herald,  summed  up  his 
address  on  "The  Integrity  of  the  News- 


ARTICLES  COMBINING  OPINIONS  191 

paper  Man"  at  the  session  last  evening 
of  the  Wisconsin  Press  Association  which 
is  now  holding  its  annual  convention  in 
Assembly  hall. 

Colonel  Brown's  address  closed  a  long 
evening  of  "newspaper  talk."  Other 
speakers  who  preceded  him  were :  Harvey 
H.  Lather,  business  manager  of  the  River 
Falls  Gazette,  who  spoke  on  "Merchandiz- 
ing Surveys";  John  R.  Hood,  secretary 
of  the  State  Franklin  Club,  who  discussed 
"Improved  Cost  Accounting";  and  Mar- 
shall Richards,  editor  of  the  Oreland 
County  Press,  who  told  "How  to  Get  Bet- 
ter Advertising  Rates."  James  Nelvin, 
editor-in-chief  of  the  Dayton  Courier, 
presided. 

A  resolution  asking  Congress  to  con- 
tinue its  investigation  of  the  print  paper 
situation  was  voted  at  the  close  of  the 
meeting.  At  the  final  session  this  morn- 
ing, it  was  announced,  the  election  of 
officers  will  take  place. 

Colonel  Brown,  in  his  address,  urged 
the  newspaper  publishers  to  lay  aside  the 
stress  of  competition  and  to  stand  rigidly 
for  the  best  in  journalism. 

"The  newspaper  of  today  is  the  only 
reading  matter  perused  by  most  of  our 
public,"  he  said,  etc. 

Separate  Divisions, — The  article  is  now  finished  in  all 
details  except  one.  The  summary  has  told  the  reader  the 
names  of  the  men  who  spoke,  and  the  reader,  if  he  is  fur- 
ther interested,  may  look  for  the  later  individual  speech 
reports  that  interest  him.  To  help  him  in  finding  them 
and  keeping  them  separate,  we  shall,  in  each  report,  place 
the  speaker's  name  in  a  conspicuous  position — at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  first  line  of  a  paragraph.     To  complete  the 


192 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


paragraph  and.  avoid  using  a  formal  colon,  we  may  give 
a  sentence  or  two  of  summary,  after  the  name,  before 
beginning  the  direct  quotation.  Thus  the  article  is  divided 
into  its  separate  parts  by  the  speaker's  names.  Obviously, 
in  each  report  we  place  the  most  important  statements  near 
the  beginning.  If  the  lead  has  quoted  from  one  address, 
we  should  place  that  address  first,  immediately  after  the 
summary,  as  is  done  above.  How  each  speech  report  begins 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  extract  from  such  an 
article : 


Mr.  Lather,  whose  address  opened  the 
meeting,  told  how  his  newspaper,  The 
Gazette,  had  made  a  survey  of  the  mer- 
chandizing conditions  in  River  Falls  as 
an  aid  to  its  cam^Daign  for  foreign  adver- 
tising. 

"The  average  newspaper  publisher," 
Mr.  Lather  pointed  out,  "knows  little  of 
the  potential  buying  power  of  his  com- 
munity, etc." 


The  building  of  such  an  article  thus  is  largely  a  matter 
of  outlining.  If  the  writer  has  sufficient  notes  and  has 
prepared  a  careful  outline,  his  article  will  be  well  formed 
and  easy  to  read.  The  outline  of  an  article  on  the  news- 
paper convention  might  be  as  follows : 


1st  and  2nd  Paragraphs . .  .Statement     by     Col.     Hartland 

Brown,  of  the  Marshville  Herald, 
delivered  at,  etc. 

3rd  Paragraph  Summary  of  speakers,  identifica- 
tions, and  titles  of  addresses. 

4th  Paragraph .Interesting  events  during  session. 

5th  Paragraph Colonel    Brown,    speaking    on — 

short  summary. 


ARTICLES   COMBINING   OPINIONS  193 

6th  to  9th  Paragraphs. .  .Quotations  from  Colonel  Brown's 

talk. 

10th  Paragraph Mr.  Lather  told — short  summary. 

11th  to  14th  Paragraphs.  .Quotations  from  Mr.  Lather's  ad- 
dress. 

15th  Paragraph Mr.  Hood  urged — short  summary. 

16th  to  18th  Paragraphs.  .Quotations     from     Mr.     Hood's 

speech. 

(And  so  on  to  the  end.) 

Symposium  Interviews. — Group  interviews,  or  articles 
which  present  the  opinions  of  a  number  of  persons  on  the 
same  topic,  are  a  similar  problem  but  simpler  to  handle, 
because  all  the  speakers  are  talking  on  the  same  subject. 
To  obtain  material  for  such  an  article,  we  interview  a  num- 
ber of  persons  on  the  same  subject,  usually  the  significance 
of  a  current  event  of  interest.  Each  interview  is  handled 
just  as  if  it  were  the  only  interview  on  the  subject,  and 
the  reporter  devises  some  such  means  of  obtaining  verbatim 
statements  as  was  suggested  in  Chapter  XX.  He  plans 
out  his  questions  for  each  of  the  persons  interviewed  in 
advance,  usually  bringing  out  a  different  phase  of  the 
subject  in  each  interview. 

Separate  Statements. — The  writing  of  the  article  is 
much  the  same  problem  as  the  writing  of  an  article  combin- 
ing a  series  of  speeches.  Each  interview  is  written  sep- 
arately and  is  made  up  of  quotation  and  summary.  As 
before,  the  writer  must  consider  some  means  of  emphasiz- 
ing the  name  of  each  successive  speaker,  to  separate  the 
article  into  its  several  parts.  The  two  commonest  forms 
are  as  follows : 

1.  To  begin  with  the  speaker's  name  and  a  short  sum- 
mary : 


194 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


Charles  A.  Karjoen,  attorney,  urged 
immediate  disarmament  without  regard  to 
the  action  of  other  nations. 

"Some  nation  must  set  the  pace,"  he 
said.  "If  the  United  States  shows  the 
world  that  it  is  ready  to  begin  disarm- 
ing," etc. 


2.  To  begin  with  the  speaker's  name  without  the  sum- 
mary: 


MATTHEW  R.  HARVEY,  banker.— 
"Disarmament  can  be  attained  only 
through  a  conference  of  the  great  powers. 
They  are  ready,"  etc. 


When  the  statements  are  not  more  than  one  paragraph 
each,  the  names  are  sometimes  placed  within  the  quota- 
tions, thus: 


"The  World  War  should  have  taught 
us  the  lesson  of  preparedness,"  said  John 
Hall,  architect.  "Must  we  repeat  the,'' 
etc. 


Summary  Lead. — Such  an  article  requires  a  lead  to 
sum  it  up  and  to  tell  the  reader  the  occasion  for  the  inter- 
view— the  consensus  of  prominent  citizens  on  a  timely  sub- 
ject. While  telling  what  was  the  commonest  opinion,  how- 
ever, the  reporter  does  not  forget  to  mention  those  who 
were  in  the  minority  and,  in  general,  sums  up  all  sides  of 
the  various  opinions.  Because  of  the  shortness  of  such  an 
article,  the  list  of  names  is  seldom  included  in  the  lead,  as 
was  done  in  the  report  of  a  meeting.  The  following  illus- 
trates the  lead  of  such  an  article : 


ARTICLES  COMBINING   OPINIONS 


195 


That  the  United  States  should  begin  to 
disarm  at  once  and  thereby  set  an  example 
for  the  rest  of  the  world,  as  urged  yester- 
day by  Senator  Timothy  Jones  in  his 
address  in  the  Auditorium,  is  the  opinion 
most  commonly  heard  among  the  business 
and  professional  men  of  the  city  today. 

Of  eleven  citizens  who  expressed  opin- 
ions to  The  News  this  morning,  eight 
favor  immediate  disarmament.  A  more 
cautious  policy  is  advocated  by  others 
who  fear  that  hasty  disarmament  may  lay 
the  nation  open  to  future  difficulty,  es- 
pecially with  Mexico. 

CHARLES  A.  KARPEN,  attorney.— 
"Some  nation  must  set  the  jDace,"  etc. 


Greater  interest  sometimes  may  be  obtained  in  a  sym- 
posinm  interview  article  bv  the  nse  of  a  more  narrative 
method.  The  writer,  instead  of  merely  presenting  the 
opinions  obtained,  makes  his  report  a  narrative  of  his  con- 
versations with  the  varions  persons  concerned  and  some- 
times brings  himself  and  his  questions  into  the  article. 
This  method  is  effective  if  well  done,  but  it  requires  much 
skill. 


EXERCISES  XXI 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  study  articles  of  this  kind  in 
newspapers.  Are  the  leads  adequate?  Is  the  newsy 
feature  at  the  beginning  representative  of  the  entire 
story  ? 

Tuesday 

1.  Report  a  public  meeting  at  which  several  persons  speak 
and  take  notes  on  their  addresses — a  meeting  of  the 
city  council,  the  county  board,  a  class  meeting,  or  a 
literary   society   session,   if   there   are   no   other   public 


196  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

meetings.  From  your  notes  write  a  short  separate  re- 
port of  each  speech  beginning  with  the  speaker's  name 
heading  a  paragraph  of  summary. 
2.  In  class,  write  a  paragraph  or  two  summing  up  the 
entire  meeting  reported  above  and  give  the  names,  iden- 
tifications, and  subjects  of  the  various  speakers.  Then 
deliver  orally  a  paragraph  that  emphasizes  the  most  in- 
teresting statement  at  the  meeting  and  gives  the  occa- 
sion. Later  put  the  article  together  in  the  proper  order : 
(1)  newsy  paragraph,  (2)  summary,  (3)  variou9 
speeches  in  order  of  interest. 

Wednesday 

1.  Interview  six  citizens  on  the  value  of  college  education. 
Plan  in  advance  a  different  question  to  be  asked  of 
each.  Then  write  a  symposium  interview  combining  the 
six  interviews. 

2.  In  class,  write  a  summary  lead  for  this  interview  story. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Comics,  Cartoons,  Humor 

The  "comic  strip,"  which  a  few  years  ago  was  a  question- 
able adjunct  in  a  few  American  newspapers,  is  now  appearing 
in  some  of  the  most  reputable  journals.  Advocates  of  the 
comics  say  that  they  furnish  entertainment  to  many  readers 
and  often  lead  thoughtless  readers  into  certain  sections  of 
the  newspaper  where  they  might,  perchance,  read  something 
serious.  Further,  comics  are  an  excellent  circulation-builder. 
In  fact,  many  readers  seem  to  select  newspapers  for  their 
comics.  But  man}^  editors,  while  using  comics,  are  not  sure 
that  the  dignity  of  their  newspapers  is  not  lowered  by  them ; 
some  comics  are  accused  of  being  in  bad  taste,  if  not  a  bad 
influence.  While  considering  these  aspects,  remember  that 
the  comics  are  purchased  by  small  newspapers  from  syndicates 
or  from  metropolitan  newspapers.     The  cartoon,  which  was 


ARTICLES  COMBINING  OPINIONS  197, 

originallj^  concerned  with  political  subjects  and  was  often  a 
pointed  pictorial  editorial  of  the  keenest  type,  has  digressed 
to  other  subjects  and  is  to  some  extent  losing  quality.  Often 
it  is  included  merely  as  a  bit  of  display  to  lighten  a  heavy 
page.  Cartoons,  too,  are  now  supplied  mainly  by  syndicates 
or  large  newspapers.  The  old-time  paragrapher,  who  still 
writes  brief  humorous  comments  on  the  news  in  certain 
papers,  has  a  new  rival  in  ^^the  column  conductor,"  whose 
humor  delves  into  any  subject,  humorous,  literary,  or  fanci- 
ful. Both  of  these  types  of  features  are  extensively  syn- 
dicated. 

1.  How  many  regular  comic  strips  does  your  newspaper 
use?  Where  does  it  place  them — all  together,  on  special 
pages,  or  just  where  they  may  fall?  Are  they  used  to 
draw  readers  to  the  want-ad  or  some  other  section? 

2.  Does  the  newspaper  print  any  comics  so  good  that  they 
draw  readers?     Are  the  strips  from  syndicates? 

3.  What  is  the  level  of  the  humor?  How  new  are  the 
jokes?  Is  artistic  ability  shown  in  them?  Do  they 
encourage  good  English,  or  are  they  built  on  the  slang 
of  the  day  ?    Would  you  urge  the  elimination  of  any  ? 

4.  Does  your  newspaper  use  cartoons?  Who  draws  them? 
Are  they  syndicated?  Of  what  subjects  do  they  treat? 
On  what  pages  are  they  printed?  Do  they  add  to  the 
value  of  the  newspaper? 

5.  Is  there  a  humor  column  ?    Who  writes  it  ?    Criticize  it. 

6.  ^liat  other  humorous  material,  such  as  jokes,  pert  para- 
graphs, etc.,  do  you  find  in  the  newspaper? 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  Note  on  the  map  the  location  and  boundaries  of  the 
city's  wards.  Can  you  learn  anything  about  the  growth 
of  the  city  from  the  numbering  of  the  wards?  What 
wards  are  divided  into  precincts  ?  Where  is  the  voting 
booth  in  vour  ward? 


198  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

2.  In  class,  memory  test.  When  was  the  last  ward  laid 
out?  Any  changes  suggested  recently?  How  has  the 
layout  affected  municipal  relations?  Characterize  the 
wards  by  kinds  of  population  or  business.  Other  cur- 
rent news. 


CHxlPTEK  XXII 
WRITING  ABOUT  ATHLETICS 

Since  tlie  beginning  of  newspapers  and  periodicals,  the 
reporting  of  athletic  contests  and  discussion  of  sports  and 
sportsmen  have  been  an  important  branch  of  journalistic 
writing.  One  of  the  first  English  publications  was  a 
sporting  paper,  and  since  then  many  other  publications 
devoted  to  games,  athletics,  and  sports  have  thrived.  Xow 
almost  every  newspaper  and  magazine  in  America  devotes 
more  or  less  space  to  the  subject.  It  is  likely  that  this  will 
always  be  true,  for  games  and  sports  form  one  of  man's 
chief  interests,  partly  because  they  are  amusements  or 
hobbies,  and  partly  because  they  are  contests  of  skill  and 
strength.  It  is  therefore  well  for  every  writer  who  has 
journalistic  aspirations  to  make  the  acquaintance  of  this 
branch  of  writing.  And,  contrary  to  common  opinion,  no 
special  aptitude  of  mind  or  temperament  is  required.  A 
knowledge  of  the  various  games  discussed  and  the  players 
and  records  in  these  games  is  necessary,  to  be  sure,  but 
the  actual  writing  is  no  different  from  other  writing  that 
consists  in  gathering  and  reporting  facts. 

Two  Main  Varieties. — There  are,  in  general,  two  kinds 
of  sport  writing:  (1)  the  reporting  of  contests,  and  (2) 
the  discussion  of  various  conditions  in  the  athletic  world. 
One  is  narrative ;  the  other  is  expository.  Under  the  first 
are  included  accounts  of  such  major  athletic  contests  as 
football,  baseball,  and  basketball  games ;  accounts  of  such 

199 


200  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

contests  in  minor  sports  as  field  events,  track,  swimmings 
hockey,  and  others.  Outside  school  athletics,  the  sports 
include  baseball,  boxing,  racing,  golf,  billiards,  chess, 
bridge,  and  others.  The  reporting  of  any  of  these  contests, 
whether  in  school  or  out,  amateur  or  professional,  presents 
the  same  problem.  In  the  second  group  are  all  expository 
discussions  of  conditions  in  various  sports,  strength  of 
various  teams,  season's  prospects,  future  or  past  of  a  sport, 
general  sport  articles,  and  any  other  phases  that  interest 
sport  followers. 

Facts  Essential. — Whatever  the  sport  article  may  be, 
one  essential  must  be  emphasized — it  must  be  composed  of 
facts.  Many  young  athletic  reporters  overlook  this.  They 
fill  much  space  with  generalities  and  wise  prognostications 
and  write  on  anything  in  the  world  but  the  facts.  The 
reader  desires,  however,  names,  figures,  statistics,  records, 
exact  facts  on  which  he  may  base  his  judgments.  Knowl- 
edge t)f  various  sports — ^how  they  are  played,  how  the  score 
is  kept,  what  players  are  engaged  in  the  sport,  what  records 
have  been  made,  what  qualifications  are  required  of  the 
players,  etc. — are  absolutely  necessary. 

Long  Report  of  a  Contest. — The  report  of  a  game  or 
athletic  contest  consists  of  a  ^^running  account,''  which 
recounts  the  detailed  events  of  the  game,  and  a  summary  of 
the  important  points  for  busy  readers.  Whether  the  game 
be  football,  baseball,  basketball,  racing,  swimming,  chess, 
bowling,  or  any  other,  the  same  method  may  be  followed  in 
reporting  it.  As  an  example,  we  shall  study  the  method 
used  in  reporting  a  football  game. 

Ohtaming  Facts. — If  the  report  is  to  be  an  interesting 
one,  based  on  names  and  facts,  the  reporter  must  acquire 
certain  knowledge  before  the  game.     He  must  have  a  list 


WRITING  ABOUT  ATHLETICS  201 

of  the  players'  names  on  both  teams,  their  positions,  and 
some  additional  information  about  them,  for,  as  he  re- 
counts the  plays,  he  must  give  the  names  of  the  players 
who  make  them.  This  list  he  must  have  ready  for  use 
during  the  game.  In  football  or  baseball,  where  the  teams 
are  comparatively  large  and  the  players  are  hard  to  dis- 
tinguish, he  may  make  easier  the  task  of  attaching  right 
names  to  right  players  by  making  his  list  in  the  form  of  a 
chart  of  positions  with  names  attached.  When  a  player 
makes  a  play,  a  glance  at  the  chart  then  tells,  from  his 
position,  who  he  is.  If  he  is  out  of  his  position  when  he 
makes  the  play,  the  reporter  notes  the  position  to  which  he 
returns. 

Summary  Lead, — Although  in  actual  writing  a  reporter 
is  likely  to  write  the  detailed  ^^running  account"  of  his 
story  first,  while  he  watches  the  game,  and  the  "summary 
lead"  afterward,  when  the  game  is  over,  the  lead  is  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  story  and  is  read  first.  The  lead  may 
therefore  be  studied  first.  It  is  not  in  any  way  a  detailed 
account  of  the  game,  but  is  merely  a  brief  introductory 
summary  that  emphasizes  the  principal  points  and  sums  up 
the  entire  contest.  Its  length  depends  upon  the  length  of 
the  entire  article;  it  may  consist  of  one  paragraph  or  of 
half  a  column.  The  first  thing  that  it  tells  the  reader  is, 
of  course,  the  result  of  the  game,  together  with  its  time  and 
place  and  the  names  of  teams  or  contestants.  Sometimes 
an  important  feature  of  the  game  is  placed  at  the  begin- 
ning, although  usually  the  score,  or  result,  is  most  impor- 
tant. After  the  first  paragraph  the  writer  sums  up  various 
phases  of  the  game,  and  the  excellence  of  his  summary 
depends  upon  two  things:  (1)  the  number  of  names  and 
facts  introduced,  and  (2)  the  systematic  presentation.    He 


202 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


should,  by  all  means,  outline  his  summary  before  he  writes 
and  paragraph  it  logically.  Some  of  the  things  to  be  dis- 
cussed in  the  summary  are :  the  way  in  which  scores  were 
made;  comparison  of  playing;  star  players  and  how  they 
starred ;  significance  of  the  game's  result ;  crowd ;  and  per- 
haps opinions  of  coaches  or  captains.  The  following  will 
illustrate : 

For  the  first  time  in  four  years,  Siwash 
University  outplayed  and  outgeneraled 
Sioux  College  on  the  Indian  Camp  foot- 
ball field  here  today,  winning  by  the 
score  of  6  to  4  and  clinching  the  title  of 
the  Valley  chamjDionshij). 

At  straight  football  the  Sioux  were  the 
stronger,  but  incessant  fumbling  destroyed 
their  chance  at  victory.  At  kicking  the 
rival  backs  were  evenly  matched  until  the 
latter  part  of  the  second  half.  The  gen- 
eralship of  Captain  Messmer  of  Siwash 
probably  won  the  game. 

The  only  touchdown  during  the  game 
resulted  from  a  Sioux  fumble  in  the  third 
minute  of  play.  Greble  seized  the  ball  in 
midfield,  after  the  fumble,  and  broke 
away  for  a  long  run,  but  was  cheated  of 
a  touchdown  by  a  brilliant  tackle  by  Moore 
only  three  yards  from  the  enemy's  goal 
line.  Two  line-bucks  by  Dean,  Siwash's 
left  halfback,  carried  the  ball  over,  and 
an  easy  goal  was  kicked  by  Messmer. 

Five  minutes  later  Sioux  won  her  only 
four  points  with  a  placement  goal  after 
advancing  the  ball  from  midfield  by 
straight  football  during  which  Lange, 
quarterback,  gained  twenty-nine  yards  in 
three  plays.  His  last  plunge  through 
the  line  carried  the  ball  almost  to  the  goal 
post,  and  a  successful  kick  from  the  15- 
yard   line    put   it   over.      The   remaining 


WRITING  ABOUT  ATHLETICS 


203 


four-fifths  of  the  game,  played  at  top 
speed,  resulted  in  no  further  scores. 

In  field  generalship  Captain  Messmer 
was  so  far  superior  to  Coughlin  of  Sioux 
that  the  latter  was  replaced  by  Chestnut 
near  the  end  of  the  first  half.  Moore's 
tackling  and  running  with  the  ball  were 
outstanding  among  individual  plays.  In 
punting  Moore  barely  held  his  own  with 
the  Sioux,  but  the  Siwash  ends  did  strik- 
ing work  in  nailing  the  catcher  before  he 
could  run  back  with  the  ball.  In  this 
work  Rogers  played  brilliantly  and  Fucik 
was  a  close  second. 

Today's  victory  wipes  out  last  year's 
defeat  and  gives  Siwash  the  Valley  cham- 
pionship for  the  first  time  in  six  years. 
It  is  the  most  serious  defeat  Sioux  has 
suffered  in  that  time. 

More  than  15,000  spectators  crowded 
the  stands  at  Indian  Camp  although  the 
temperature  was  too  low  for  comfort.  A 
swirl  of  snow  during  the  second  quarter 
forced  the  crowd  to  stand  and  dance  to 
keep  warm. 

[End  of  lead.  Running  account  fol- 
lows.] 


Running  Story. — The  running  account  of  the  game, 
which  is  written  in  the  form  of  notes  during  the  game,  con- 
sists of  a  more  or  less  detailed  narrative.  In  a  football 
story  a  sentence  may  be  devoted  to  each  play,  or  to  several 
plays  if  the  account  is  brief.  The  narrative  should  be 
divided  into  paragraphs  on  the  basis  of  the  various  parts  of 
the  game.  Interest  is  added  by  putting  into  the  account 
as  many  names  as  possible  and  by  avoiding  endless  repeti- 
tion of  the  same  nouns  and  verbs.  The  following  is  a  bit 
of  such  an  account: 


204 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


[Following  the  lead.] 
Sioux  won  the  toss  and  selected  the 
west  goal  with  a  slight  wind  in  her  favor. 
At  2:02  Siwash  kicked  off  to  the  Sioux 
20-yard  line,  and  the  ball  was  returned 
to  Siwash's  35-yard  line  by  Schulte.  On 
an  attempted  fake,  Dean  got  through 
Sioux's  left  tackle  for  five  yards.  Siwash 
then  kicked,  and  on  the  Sioux  fumble 
Greble  secured  the  ball  in  midfield  and 
carried  it  to  the  3-yard  line.  A  dash  into 
the  line  by  Dean  gained  about  one  foot. 
On  the  next  line-up  Dean  carried  the  ball 
over  for  a  touchdown.  Messmer  kicked 
goal. 

Greble  punted  to  the  Sioux  45-yard 
line,  and  Lange  recovered  the  ball.  Dal- 
ton  skirted  the  Siwash  right  end  for  five 
yards,  and  on  the  lineup  he  kicked  to  the 
Siwash  25-yard  line.  [Etc.,  play  by  play, 
naming  players  and  giving  distances.] 


Tables. — To  prepare  the  tables  or  box  score  to  be  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  article,  the  writer  should  use  a  table  in 
a  newspaper  as  his  model. 

Shorter  Athletic  Stories. — An  article  like  the  above, 
whether  it  tells  the  story  of  a  baseball  game,  football  game, 
track  meet,  or  any  other  athletic  contest,  would  be  rather 
long,  if  it  contained  all  the  details  suggested ;  the  running 
account,  if  it  followed  the  game  play  by  play,  would  take 
several  hundred  words.  Often,  of  course,  a  contest  is  writ- 
ten up  at  such  length.  A  more  usual,  shorter  account, 
however,  is  a  condensed  version  of  the  game  which  re- 
sembles the  longer  account  in  every  detail  except  length. 
It  is  the  same  article  boiled  down  to  shorter  space.  As 
before,  the  chief  interest  is  in  the  result,  names  of  players, 
and  records  or  star  plays  that  are  made. 


WRITING  ABOUT  ATHLETICS  205 

A  good  length  for  this  shorter  article  is  about  400  words, 
but,  like  the  longer  article  studied  above,  it  must  be  divided 
into  two  distinct  parts:  (1)  introductory  summary  for 
casual  readers,  and  (2)  running  account  for  sport  en- 
thusiasts. To  get  the  proper  proportion,  it  is  often  well  to 
allot  the  space  equally  between  the  two.  As  there  is  not 
room  in  a  200-word  running  account  to  give  all  the  plays, 
the  writer  selects  the  most  important  plays,  especially  those 
that  resulted  in  gains  or  scores,  sketching  these  '^high 
lights"  of  the  game  briefly  and  properly  divided  into 
logical  paragraphs.  The  200-word  introductory  summary 
is  also  merely  a  condensed  version  of  the  summary  of  the 
longer  article,  knit  together  into  compact  and  orderly  para- 
graphs. It  will  be  difficult  to  tell  the  entire  story  in  400 
words,  but,  whatever  is  omitted,  the  writer  must  be  sure 
that  his  story  contains  the  result  of  the  game,  names  of 
leading  players,  and  all  striking  records  or  plays.  Almost 
any  newspaper  sport  page  contains,  an  example  of  such  a 
story.' 

Expository  Sport  Articles. — The  other  kind  of  sport 
articles  is  expository,  rather  than  narrative.  Such  a  story 
is  the  ordinary  write-up  of  the  school's  athletic  prospects 
for  the  coming  season,  the  comparison  of  several  schools, 
the  situation  in  any  one  sport,  the  make-up  of  a  certain 
team,  or  the  summary  of  a  season's  results.  It  is  entirely 
composed  of  facts  and  must  be  carefully  outlined  in 
advance. 

Kind  of  Facts. — As  an  example,  one  might  write  an 
article  on  the  track  prospects  in  the  local  school  for  the 
coming  season.  Such  an  article  would  discuss  in  proper 
order  all  the  various  track  events;  for  example,  distance 
runners,  sprinters,  relay  team,  jumpers,  vaulters,  hurdlers, 


206 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


weight  men,  coaches,  etc.  The  list  itself  suggests  the  out- 
line for  the  article.  Under  each  head,  the  writer  gives  the 
names  of  all  the  men  engaged  in  the  particular  event,  their 
classes  (so  that  the  reader  may  know  how  long  they  will  be 
in  school),  records  they  have  made,  and  their  relative 
merits.  The  account  should  include  their  full  names  and 
all  available  information  about  their  abilities,  so  that 
enthusiasts  may  compare  them.  If  the  article  is  crowded 
with  facts,  there  is  no  need  of  comment  or  ''dope."  The 
reader  does  not  desire  ''dope,''  which  is  nothing  but  an 
unknown  writer's  opinion.  A  good  beginning  for  such  an 
article  would  be  a  summary  of  the  significance  of  the  facts 
or  the  most  interesting  points;  perhaps  the  fact  that  the 
team  is  exceptionally  strong  in  weight  men  but  weak  in 
sprinters.    The  following  will  illustrate : 


"An  uncertain  and  unusual  condition 
exists  in  the  Waverley  School  basketball 
camp  as  a  result  of  the  scarcity  of  veteran 
material,"  said  Coach  S.  G.  Brown  last 
night,  in  commenting  on  the  prospects 
preceding  the  first  game  of  the  season. 

With  only  one  man  of  last  year's  team 
available  as  a  basis  for  this  year's  ma- 
chine and  only  two  others  who  have  had 
previous  floor  experience,  Coach  Brown 
has  been  forced  to  work  over  a  squad  of 
almost  thirty  "gi'een  hands"  in  search  of 
the  most  promising  men  who  can  be 
whipped  into  shape  quickly. 

Although  the  squad  has  been  working 
for  several  weeks,  no  permanent  lineup 
has  resulted  from  the  four  or  five  tem- 
porary combinations  that  have  been  tried. 
Most  of  the  coach's  time  has  been  devoted 
to  preliminary  drilling  and  a  sun-ey  of 
candidates. 


WRITING  ABOUT  ATHLETICS 


207 


With  the  Marltown  game,  the  first  of 
the  season,  due  on  Saturday,  a  heavy 
schedule  of  practices  has  been  in  effect 
this  week.  It  is  probable  that  in  this  and 
other  early  games  various  combinations 
of  players  will  be  tried. 

Thomas  L.  Chandler,  senior  and  center 
of  last  year's  team,  is  the  only  experienced 
man  in  the  squad.  Illness  has  kept  him 
from  much  of  the  early  practice  but  he 
will  play  on  Saturday. 

Peter  T.  Knapp,  junior,  and  H.  C. 
Mitchell,  sophomore,  are  the  only  others 
who  have  played  before.  Knapp  played 
forward  with  the  freshman  team  two 
years  ago  but  has  not  been  on  the  floor 
since.  Mitchell  fonnerly  played  a  few 
games  as  center  in  a  factory  league. 

Three  other  candidates  for  forward  who 
are  developing  well,  according  to  Coach 
Brown,  are,  etc.  [The  stor}-  eventualh' 
names  most  of  the  squad.] 

Tone  in  Sport  Writing — In  all  sport  writing  certain 
practices  are  to  be  noted.  There  is  little  or  no  place  for 
slang  in  modern  sport  writing  in  better  newspapers  and 
magazines;  it  is  going  out  of  style.  The  reason  is  that 
slang  makes  sport  articles  unintelligible  to  all  except  those 
enthusiasts  who  keep  their  slang  vocabularies  up  to  date; 
also,  unless  done  by  experts,  slang  writing  is  usually  a 
dismal  affair.  !N'owadays  many  of  the  best  newspapers 
uniformly  bar  it.  In  the  same  way,  technical  sport  lan- 
guage is  to  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible,  unless  the  reader 
is  sure  to  know  the  terms.  ^Tlain  English''  is  the  best 
medium.  Another  danger  is  that  facts  in  sport  articles 
will  be  overshadowed  by  unnecessary  comment.  Unless 
the  writer  has  a  wide  reputation  as  a  critic  of  sports,  no 
reader  cares  for  his  opinion.     The  reader  simply  asks  for 


208  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

the  facts  so  that  he  may  form  his  own  judgment.  Too 
many  young  writers  use  their  space  for  useless  '^dope/''  or 
personal  opinion,  and  neglect  to  tell  the  facts.  After  all, 
good  sport  writing,  like  all  other  good  newspaper  writing, 
depends  on  careful  gathering  of  facts  as  much  as  upon  their 
presentation. 

EXERCISES  XXII 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  analyze  a  long  sport  article 
in  a  newspaper.  Is  it  written  in  accord  with  the  dis- 
cussion ? 

Tuesdaij 

1.  Cover  an  athletic  contest  in  your  school  or  town — a  base- 
ball game,  basketball  game,  or  any  other.  Take  notes 
on  each  play,  with  especial  attention  to  players'  names. 
Write  a  1,000-word  account  of  the  game,  devoting  400 
words  to  the  introductory  lead  and  600  words  to  the 
running  account.  Add  tables  and  boxed  score  at  end. 
(It  may  be  necessary  to  adjust  this  week's  assignments 
to  bring  this  work  to  a  day  when  there  is  a  game.) 

2.  In  class,  write  a  400-word  account  of  the  same  game  in 
accordance  with  the  suggestions  for  "short  sport  ar- 
ticles.'' 

Wednesday 

1.  Write  one  of  the  following: 

(fl)  An    article    summing    up    the    school's   basketball 

season. 
(h)   An  account  of  the  school's  prospects  for  the  track 

season. 

(c)  An  article  comparing  one  of  the  school's  teams  with 
the  same  team  in  a  rival  school. 

(d)  Write  up  each  player  or  team  in  separate  articles. 

2.  In  class,  analyze  carefully  the  diction  used  in  these 
articles. 


WRITING  ABOUT  ATHLETICS  209 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

The  Sport  Editor 

Formerly  the  editor  of  the  sport  page  was  likely  to  be 
someone  taken  from  the  world  of  sports,  because  of  his  active 
association  with  the  field;-  now  he  is  more  often  a  regularly 
trained  newspaper  man  who  knows  sports  and,  in  addition, 
knows  newspaper  methods.  He  often  has  reporters  under 
him  or,  more  likely,  employs  other  reporters  or  outsiders  to 
write  at  space  rates.  He  also  has  correspondents  in  various 
other  cities,  especially  university  towns,  and  uses  press  associa- 
tion service  and  syndicate  material.  In  studying  his  work 
we  are  chiefly  interested  in  the  content  and  tone.  Many 
sport  pages  are  largely  limited  to  professional  sports;  others 
specialize  in  amateur  and  college  sports.  Some  editors  en- 
courage all  kinds  of  local  sports — boAvling,  tennis,  golf,  bridge 
^while  others  write  only  of  two  or  three  national  sports.  As 
to  tone,  many  pages  are  so  slangy  and  technical  that  they 
interest  only  "fans,''  The  present  tendency  seems  to  be 
toward  better  English  and  an  attempt  to  attract  other  readers. 
All  too  many  sport  editors  make  up  lazy  pages  including 
two  or  three  articles  on  national  or  professional  sports,  a 
syndicate  cartoon  or  comic,  some  slangy  headlines,  and  a 
hodgepodge  of  miscellany  for  men  readers.  The  next  few 
years  will  probably  see  great  changes  in  this  section,  and 
perhaps  one  of  the  changes  will  be  the  inclusion  of  the  in- 
terest in  women's  athletics  which  is  being  developed  in  univer- 
sities and  other  institutions. 

1.  How  much  space  in  your  newspaper  is  devoted  to  sport 
news?  How  much  is  concerned  with  local  events  and 
how  much  with  outside  events?  How  much  is  from 
s}Tidicate  or  press  association? 

2.  How  many  kinds  of  sports  and  contests  are  mentioned 
in  one  issue? 


210  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

3.  What  proportion  of  the  articles  deals  with  special  con- 
tests and  what  with  general  news  of  the  sport  world  ? 

4.  Is  the  writing  slangy  and  colloquial?  How  much  so? 
Is  any  of  it  headed  by  the  writer's  signature  ? 

5.  Is  the  sport  page  evidently  prepared  for  the  "fan"  or 
the  casual  reader?     What  evidence  do  you  find? 

6.  Is  more  space  given  to  amateur  or  to  professional  sports  ? 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  Xote  the  names  and  locations  of  the  public  parks  in 
3"our  city.  Note  the  names  and  locations  of  various  sub- 
divisions. What  can  you  learn  of  the  growth  and  devel- 
opment of  the  city  from  the  location  of  these  sub- 
divisions ? 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test.  From  the  map  criticize 
the  park  and  boulevard  system.  Suggest  improvements. 
T\Tiat  parts  are  used  most  and  why?  Where  are  others 
needed?  "WTiat  recent  suggestions  have  been  made  in 
the  newspapers?    Current  news. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
SOCIAL  NEWS 

Almost  every  American  newspaper  nowadays  prints 
news  of  social  events.  City  newspapers  devote  a  section  or 
a  page  to  this  material;  small  town  newspapers  mingle  it 
with  a  column  of  personal  items.  The  news  is  sometimes 
presented  in  a  stiff,  formal  way,  sometimes  in  an  intimate, 
gossipy  style.  Whatever  its  nature,  the  preparation  of 
social  news  affords  interesting  j)ractice  in  composition. 

The  purpose  of  social  news  is  to  tell  readers  about  the 
doings  of  persons  whom  they  know,  or  know  of.  The  per- 
sonal element  in  it  is  strongest.  In  a  town  or  small  city 
it  is  taken  for  granted  that  everyone  knows,  or  knows  of, 
almost  everyone  else ;  in  the  city  it  is  often  presumed  that 
social  news  will  be  read  only  by  persons  in  the  social  life 
discussed.  This  accounts  for  the  chief  difference  between 
society  news  and  other  news — its, great  stress  on  names. 
The  society  editor  tries  every  day  to  include  as  many 
names  as  possible. 

If  we  disregard  the  country  newspaper's  personal  items 
about  the  goings  and  comings  and  doings  of  its  readers, 
society  news  in  general  may  be  divided  into  a  few  special 
kinds  of  articles:  (1)  engagement  announcements,  (2) 
marriage  announcements,  (3)  accounts  of  weddings,  (4) 
accounts  of  receptions,  balls,  dances,  teas,  and  other  social 
functions.    Each  has  its  own  special  form  and  content. 

211 


212 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


Engagement  Announcements.  —  This  kind  of  social 
article  is  ordinarily  written  in  a  formal  way  in  one  para- 
graph. It  gives  the  name  of  the  woman  concerned,  her 
parents'  names  and  home  address,  her  fiance's  name,  and 
perhaps  the  annonnced  date  of  the  marriage.  Sometimes 
it  tells  at  what  social  function  the  engagement  was  an- 
nounced, and  always  the  announcement  is  made  by  the 
young  lady's  parents  or  social  guardians.  The  formal  pres- 
entation is  illustrated  by  the  following : 


At  a  dinner  at  their  home  last  night, 
Dr.  and  Mrs.  Herbert  R.  Riley,  690  West 
Ivy  avenue,  announced  the  engagement 
of  their  daughter,  Miss  Emma  Louise,  to 
James  MaeBaine  Turnbull.  The  wedding 
will  take  place  on  June  10. 


Announcement  of  Marriage. — In  form  and  content  this 
item  is  similar  to  the  engagement  announcement,  except 
that  it  always  includes  the  time  and  place  of  the  wedding. 
It  may  be  published  before  or  after  the  marriage,  and 
ordinarily  the  announcement  is  made  by  the  bride's  parents 
or  social  guardians : 


Cards  were  issued  yesterday  by  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Richard  R.  Smith,  803  Orchard 
drive,  announcing  the  Avcdding  of  their 
niece,  Miss  Martha  Roald,  to  Harold  S. 
Burgess.  The  wedding  will  take  place 
on  May  29  at  the  home  of  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Smith  and  will  be  followed  by  a  reception 
and  bridal  supper. 


Account  of  Wedding — An  article  on  a  wedding  is  really 
a  report  of  a  significant  social  event.  It  is  the  account  of 
a  wedding,  for  all  marriages  are  not  accompanied  by  such 


SOCIAL  NEWS 


213 


a  social  event.  The  chief  characteristic  of  the  wedding 
storv,  aside  from  its  formal,  conventional  nature,  is  its 
especial  interest  in  the  bride ;  it  is  written  mainly  for  the 
bride's  women  friends.  In  the  facts  to  be  included  in  a 
wedding  account,  society  writers  are  strictly  limited  by 
convention.  The  arrangement  is  always  much  the  same. 
The  summary  lead  gives  the  bride's  name,  her  parents' 
name  and  address,  the  groom's  name  (with  or  without 
identification),  the  time,  the  place,  and  the  clergyman's 
name.  The  second  paragraph  is  ordinarily  devoted  to  the 
names  of  the  various  attendants.  Xext  after  this  comes  a 
description  of  the  bride's  costume  and  the  costumes  of 
various  women  attendants.  Then  a  paragraph  may  be  de- 
voted to  decorations  and  music.  If  a  reception  or  other 
event  accompanied  the  wedding,  this  may  be  described 
next.  Isesiv  the  end  there  is  usually  a  list  of  guests,  prom- 
inent or  out-of-town.  Usually  the  end  of  the  article  an- 
nounces the  wedding  trip  and  tells  when  and  where  the 
couple  will  be  at  home.     Such  an  article  is  the  following : 


Marshall-Herbert 

The  wedding  of  Miss  Lucy  M.  Herbert, 
elder  daughter  of  Prof,  and  Mrs.  John 
S.  Herbert,  803  Pine  street,  to  James  T. 
Marshall,  took  place  at  the  Tyndon 
Memorial  Church  at  4  o'clock  yesterday 
afternoon.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Laird  Brown 
performed  the  ceremony. 

Miss  Herbert,  who  was  given  in  mar- 
riage by  her  father,  wore  a  gown  of 
white  satin  trimmed  with  Venetian  point 
lace,  and  her  point  lace  veil,  a  family 
heirloom,  was  caught  with  orange  blos- 
soms. She  carried  a  bouciuet  of  sweet 
peas  and  lilies  of  the  valley. 


214 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


Miss"  Dorothy  Herbert,  her  sister,  who 
was  maid  of  honor,  wore  a  gown  of  green 
chiffon  over  satin,  with  lingerie  hat,  and 
carried  sweet  peas.  Douglas  Harris,  a 
college  classmate,  attended  the  groom,  and 
the  ushers  were  John  B.  Smith,  Dr. 
Samuel  Hunt,  Rodney  Johnston,  Dexter 
Kenny,  and  Norris  Jones. 

A  reception  at  the  home  of  the  bride's 
parents  followed  the  ceremony.  The  bride 
and  bridegroom  have  gone  on  a  wedding 
trip  to  Alas"ka.  They  will  be  at  home  at 
509  Maple  street  after  September  10. 


Other  Social  Affairs. — Society  editors'  accounts  of  other 
social  events  are  usnally  written  in  a  similar  formal,  con- 
ventional way.  Whether  the  social  event  is  a  reception,  a 
ball,  a  tea,  or  any  other  function,  similar  facts  are  pre- 
sented in  each.  The  first  paragraph  always  tells  the  kind 
of  event,  the  time  and  place,  and  the  names  and  addresses 
of  the  hosts.  Some  of  the  other  things  that  may  be  dis- 
cussed are  decorations,  refreshments,  music,  go^vns,  and 
special  features  of  entertainment.  If  possible,  the  writer 
includes  a  list  of  guests,  a  list  of  patronesses,  or  some  other 
group  of  names.  In  fact,  one  of  the  important  things  is  to 
include  as  many  names  as  possible.  In  accounts  of  meet- 
ings of  social  clubs  the  writer  may  also  recount  some  of 
the  business  transacted  and  perhaps  summarize  briefly 
some  of  the  papers  read.  Good  examples  may  be  seen  in 
any  well-edited  newspaper. 

Style  of  Writing.— The  forms  outlined  above  are,  of 
course,  those  of  city  newspapers.  Other  methods,  or  lack 
of  forms,  prevail  in  small  towns  and  small  cities.  In 
writing  a  wedding  or  engagement  account  for  smaller 
papers  the  writer  may  expound  at  length  on  the  accom- 


SOCIAL  NEWS  215 

plisliments  of  tlie  persons  concerned.  In  a  social  article 
such  a  newspaper  may  burst  forth  into  ''fine  writing"  that 
will  be  reprinted  by  funny  papers  near  and  far.  Such 
social  reporting  in  a  small  town  is  perhaps  justified  by  the 
fact  that  readers  know  the  writer  personally  and  there  is  a 
bond  of  friendship  or  acquaintance  between  them.  A  still 
different  style,  characterized  by  flowery  writing,  is  seen  in 
the  newspapers  of  the  South. 

Accuracy. — One  of  the  essentials  in  social  writing  is 
absolute  accuracy,  especially  in  names.  The  society  re- 
porter must  take  the  greatest  pains  to  get  every  name  right 
— in  spelling,  initials,  address,  or  other  identification. 
Other  details  must  be  checked  with  equal  care.  All  avail- 
able directories  must  be  used.  That  the  reader  is  person- 
ally acquainted  with  the  facts  makes  it  impossible  for  an 
error  to  go  unnoticed  or  fail  to  result  in  unfavorable 
criticism. 

No  Comment. — Society  reporters  try  to  avoid  comment 
or  comparison,  because  it  is  unnecessary  and  dangerous. 
If  the  writer  goes  into  ecstasies  over  one  social  event  and 
uses  many  comparative  and  superlative  adjectives  to  de- 
scribe it,  he  must  neither  exceed  nor  fall  short  of  it  in  the 
account  of  the  next  event,  or  the  persons  concerned  in  the 
milder  story  will  feel  slighted.  It  is  useless  to  praise  a 
social  event,  for  everyone  knows  that,  since  the  writer  has 
no  license  to  condemn,  his  praise  is  not  necessarily  sincere. 
Society  writers  on  city  newspapers  therefore  generally 
avoid  comparatives,  superlatives,  and  other  kinds  of  com- 
ment. They  recount  the  facts  and  make  no  attempt  at 
''fine  writing." 

Word  Usage. — Social  writing,  since  it  is  formal  and 
conventional,  requires  strict  attention  to  the  meaning  of 


216  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

words.  For  example,  just  what  is  a  patrcniess,  a  debutante, 
a  chaperon  (notice  spelling),  a  ring  service,  a  ball,  sl  pro- 
gressive dinner?  What  is  the  proper  usage  of  to  ived,  to  be 
wedded,  to  marry,  to  be  married?  Shall  we  say  that  the 
clergyman  performed  the  ceremony,  officiated,  read  the 
service,  or  what  ?  The  society  writer  must  investigate  the 
meanings  of  these  words,  or  ludicrous  mistakes  may  result. 

EXERCISES  XXIII 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  study  the  social  column  of 
a  newspaper,  with  particular  reference  to  diction  and 
methods  of  avoiding  monotony.  Analyze  a  wedding 
story  to  see  what  facts  it  presents  and  how  it  is  handled. 

Tuesday 

1.  Obtain  the  facts  and  names  concerned  in  a  wedding  that 
has  taken  place  recently  or  will  soon  take  place.  On 
these  facts  write  each  of  the  following: 

(a.)   A  formal  engagement  announcement. 
{!))   A  formal  wedding  announcement. 

2.  In  class,  write  a  250-word  account  of  the  wedding. 
Wednesday 

1.  Write  a  350-word  account  of  a  recent  social  event  from 
personal  knowledge,  including  at  least  twenty  names, 
all  verified  as  to  spelling  and  initials.  Or,  write  up  the 
last  party  you  attended. 

2.  In  class,  make  a  careful  study  of  the  word  usage  in  these 
articles. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Social  News 

Society  editors  in  cities  of  medium  size  have  a  system  of 
gathering  news  not  unlike  that  used  l\v  the  city  editor.    Their 


SOCIAL  NEWS  217 

sources  are  the  officers  of  women's  clubs,  church  societies,  and 
various  other  organizations,  as  well  as  a  carefully  gathered 
list  of  women  who  know  what  their  friends  are  doing  and 
who  gather  items  for  the  social  editor.  Some  of  the  voluntary 
newsgatherers  send  in  their  items;  to  others  the  editor 
telephones  at  regular  intervals;  sometimes  '^social  cor- 
respondents" supply  news  in  return  for  space  rates  or  a  free 
copy.  For  important  events  the  editor  usually  keeps  a  "date- 
book"  of  future  events.  Because  of  the  need  of  accuracy 
in  reports  of  weddings  and  other  important  events,  many 
social  editors  send  out  printed  blanks  on  which  persons  con- 
cerned note  facts  and  names.  On  dull  days  the  editor  reads 
"exchanges" — newspapers  from  nearby  cities — for  items  con- 
cerning persons  who  are  out  of  town.  The  routine  of  social 
news  is  often  relieved  by  the  use  of  a  "daily  lead,"  or  para- 
graph of  timely  comment,  printed  under  an  interesting  head- 
line and  the  editor's  name.  But  aside  from  all  the  special 
devices  to  make  the  section  attractive,  the  one  great  require- 
ment is  accuracy — "to  get  names,  get  them  right,  and  not 
offend  readers  by  mistakes." 

1.  Just  what  social  news  and  personal  news  does  your  news- 
paper carry  each  day?  How  accurately  does  the  social 
editor  suit  the  size  and  interests  of  the  city?  How 
many  items  are  likely  to  be  known  to  a  large  number 
of  readers  ? 

2.  Does  the  editor  make  many  mistakes?  Check  this  by 
looking  up  in  the  city  directory  all  the  names  in  one 
column,  examining  spelling,  initials,  and  addresses. 

3.  What  special  methods  of  typographical  display  are  used 
to  make  the  section  attractive? 

4.  Are  all  social  circles  in  the  city  included,  or  is  the 
section  open  to  the  accusation  of  favoritism? 

5.  To  what  extent  are  the  sources  of  news  evident?  Can 
3^ou  find  anything  obviously  taken  from  the  exchanges? 


218  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  What  are  the  chief  industries  in  your  city?  What  is 
the  principal  business?  Why  did  this  business  and 
industry  develop?  List  the  principal  firms  engaged  in 
the  business.  AVhere  are  their  establishments  located? 
The  study  may  include  number  of  employees,  capital  in- 
vested, annual  business,  and  other  considerations. 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test.  ^\Tiat  news  might  a 
newspaper  expect  to  obtain  from  these  various  enter- 
prises? Which  have  been  mentioned  in  the  newspaper 
recently?  Are  the  enterprises  grouped  geographically? 
AVhat  grouping  would  improve  the  city?  What  enter- 
prises are  known  nationally  ?    Why  ?    Current  news. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHES 

The  writing  of  biographical  sketches  is  a  common  task 
in  all  newspaper  offices.  The  newspaper  biographical 
sketch  is  called  an  '^obituary''  because  it  usually  accom- 
panies an  article  telling  of  the  death  of  a  well-known  per- 
son. Biographical  sketches  are  also  printed  on  other 
occasions — when  a  person  receives  public  office  or  is  nom- 
inated for  it,  when  success  or  promotion  comes  to  a  well- 
known  citizen,  or  when,  for  any  reason,  a  person  comes  into 
the  public  eye  and  is  written  about  in  the  newspapers  in  a 
favorable  connection. 

Newspaper  ''Morgue. "—Information  for  biographical 
sketches  is  obtained  from  various  sources.  In  well-organ- 
ized newspaper  offices,  information  about  all  prominent 
local  citizens  and  about  persons  of  national  fame,  together 
with  photographs,  is  filed  and  indexed  ready  for  instant 
use.  This  biographical  library  is  commonly  known  as  the 
^^graveyard"  or  ''morgue.''  Into  it  are  placed  newspaper 
clippings,  magazine  articles,  booklets,  and  other  material. 
Many  newspapers  often  have  biographical  sketches  of 
prominent  persons  already  written  and  filed  away  ready  to 
be  brought  up  to  date  and  printed  when  needed.  This  is 
most  likely  to  be  so  when  the  person  concerned  is  ill  or  at 
the  point  of  death.  All  this  is  done  so  that  the  newspaper 
may  print  a  complete  biographical  sketch  at  the  time  it 
tells  of  the  death. 

219 


220  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Other  Sources. — When  a  morgue  is  lacking,  the  reporter 
must  turn  to  other  standard  sources  of  information.  In- 
formation about  persons  of  national  or  international  fame 
is  to  be  found  in  such  books  as  "Who's  Who  in  America/' 
*'Who's  Who  in  England/'  "Wer  Ist's"  in  Germany,  "Qui 
etez-vous/'  in  France,  "The  Authors'  Who's  Who,"  and 
manj  others.  Information  about  local  citizens  may  be 
found  in  city  and  county  histories  and  other  local  docu- 
ments. It  is  often  necessary  to  obtain  local  biographies  by 
interviewing  family  or  friends  of  the  deceased  to  get  the 
facts  of  his  life. 

Some  of  the  facts  to  be  obtained  for  such  a  sketch  are: 
when  and  where  he  was  born ;  the  various  places  in  which 
he  had  lived,  with  dates ;  facts  and  dates  in  regard  to  his 
education  and  college  degrees ;  facts  and  dates  in  regard  to 
the  occupations  and  professions  in  which  he  had  engaged ; 
organizations  to  which  he  had  belonged ;  books  and  articles 
that  he  had  written;  offices  he  had  held;  honors  he  had 
received;  details  in  regard  to  his  most  conspicuous  work. 
The  writer  often  obtains  such  anecdotes  as  contain  side- 
lights on  his  character. 

Writing  an  Obituary. — The  written  sketch  is  a  straight- 
forward presentation  of  facts.  The  first  paragraph,  or 
lead,  ordinarily  contains  the  announcement  of  the  death. 
In  this  the  name  comes  first,  since  it  is  of  greatest  interest, 
and  is  followed  at  once  by  the  address  or  information  that 
will  suggest  the  person's  identity.  The  same  paragraph 
tells  also  the  time  and  place  of  his  death,  cause  of  death, 
and  duration  of  illness ;  sometimes  one  or  more  paragraphs 
are  added  to  present  details  of  the  death  or  to  enlarge  upon 
the  identity  or  conspicuous  work  of  the  subject  of  the 
sketch.     For  example: 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHES 


221 


"William  B.  Smith,  former  maj^or  of  this 
city  and  prominent  banker,  died  at  11:30 
last  night  at  his  home,  539  Fairmont 
avenue,  after  a  lingering  illness  of  three 
months.  In  spite  of  his  age  of  71,  he  had 
been  in  excellent  health  until  last  May  and 
since  that  time  had  been  confined  to  his 
home  by  a  slight  attack  of  heart  trouble 
that  was  not  feared  as  dangerous.  His 
death  came  unexpectedly  shortly  after  he 
had  retired  for  the  night. 

A  resident  of  the  city  since  1868,  Mr. 
Smith  had  sensed  three  terms  as  mayor — 
t^YO  consecutive  terms  from  1885  to  1889, 
and  a  third  term  from  1891  to  1893.  For 
many  years  he  had  been  president  of  the 
First  National  Bank  and  vice-president 
of  the  Home  Trust  and  Savings  Bank. 


Xext  comes  the  sketch  of  the  person's  life.  In  some 
newspapers  the  entire  sketch  is  printed  in  one  paragraph ; 
in  others  it  is  hroken  into  shorter  paragraphs  according  to 
its  various  parts.  The  chief  consideration  is  logical  ar- 
rangement; the  material  should  be  outlined,  perhaps  as 
suggested  above,  and  each  subject  should  be  treated 
separately.  There  must  be  no  haziness ;  the  sketch  must  be 
made  up  of  facts  and  dates,  all  handled  with  the  greatest 
accuracy.  Although  there  is  no  opportunity  for  ^'fine 
writing,"  the  writer  shows  his  skill  by  making  this  mass  of 
dates  and  facts  readable.  The  danger  is  that  all  sentences 
will  be  alike  in  construction,  many  of  them  beginning  with 
"He,"  and  that  the  style  will  be  monotonous.  At  the  end, 
or  perhaps  after  the  lead,  it  is  customary  to  give  the  names 
of  surviving  relatives  and  information  in  regard  to  the  time 
and  place  of  the  funeral.  The  following  will  illustrate 
such  a  sketch  as  it  might  be  attached  to  the  above  lead : 


222 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


Born  in  Hanover,  Ohio,  in  1849,  ]Mr. 
Smith  received  his  early  education  in  the 
schools  of  that  village.  Later  he  attended 
an  eastern  preparatory^  school  and  was  en- 
rolled for  one  year  in  Bingham  University. 
In  1869  he  left  college  and  went  into  busi- 
ness with  his  father,  John  J.  Smith,  who 
had  brought  his  family  to  this  cit}-  during 
the  preceding  year  and  had  opened  a  re- 
tail shoe  store  at  11  West  Henry  street. 

In  1871  William  B.  Smith  withdrew 
from  his  father's  business  and  began  deal- 
ing in  real  estate,  beginning  an  interest 
that  occupied  much  of  his  attention  during 
the  rest  of  his  active  life.  During  the 
ten  years  between  1880  and  1890  he  is 
credited  with  laying  out  thirty  additions 
to  the  city  and  inducing  several  industries 
to  erect  plants  here.  His  efforts  con- 
tributed in  a  large  way  to  giving  the  city 
a  start  toward  its  present  industrial  and 
commercial  prosperity. 

After  having  served  on  the  board  of 
directors  of  the  First  National  Bank  for 
seven  years,  Mr.  Smith  was,  in  1887, 
elected  its  president  and  continued  to 
direct  its  policies  until  five  years  ago.  In 
1896  he  was  one  of  a  group  of  business 
men  who  organized  the  Home  Trust  and 
Savings  Bank  to  encourage  home-building 
and  home-owning  among  the  workers  in 
the  city's  factories,  and  served  as  vice- 
president  for  fourteen  years. 

He  was  the  first  i)resident  of  the  Home 
City  Interurban  Railroad  Company  when 
it  was  organized  in  1902  and  served  in 
that  capacity  until  his  retirement  from 
active  business.  He  was  also  instrumental 
in  the  organizing  and  l)uilding  of  several 
other  electric  railways  in  this  part  of  the 
state. 

Early   in   life   he   became   prominently 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHES 


223 


identified  with  the  Republican  politics  of 
the  state.  He  was  known  to  be  close 
friend  and  adviser  of  two  governors  and 
was  active  during  other  administrations. 
He  was  twice  a  delegate  to  the  Republican 
national  conventions,  was  chairman  of  the 
county  Republican  central  committee,  and 
a  member  of  the  state  central  committee 
for  many  years.  His  three  terms  as 
mayor  were  his  only  terms  in  office  and 
he  never  stood  for  election  to  any  other 
office. 

He  was  an  officer  in  thirty  religious, 
educational,  and  charitable  institutions, 
and  a  lay  member  of  the  state  conference 
of  the  Evangelical  Association.  During 
the  last  twenty-three  years  he  has  been  a 
member  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  Bing- 
ham University. 

In  1872  Mr.  Smith  married  Miss  Mary- 
Van  Meter,  of  Chicago,  who  died  in  1917. 
He  is  survived  by  a  daughter  and  two 
sons,  Mrs.  E.  L,  Harmon,  of  West  Bend, 
Frank  R.  Smith,  of  this  city,  and  the  Rev. 
Eugene  A.  Smith,  of  Chicago. 

Funeral  ser^'ices  will  be  held  on 
Wednesday  afternoon  at  the  First  Evan- 
gelical Church. 

Readableness. — Sometimes  various  means  may  be  em- 
ployed to  increase  the  readableness  of  the  sketch  without  im- 
pairing its  dignity.  (1)  One  means  is  to  develop  coherence 
by  emphasizing  one  idea  throughout.  Often  a  man's  life  is 
significant  because  of  one  accomplishment  or  one  character- 
istic; perhaps  his  life  hinged  about  his  efforts  to  improve 
living  conditions  in  his  community,  or  perhaps  every 
accomplishment  was  the  result  of  exceptional  will  power. 
If  the  story  in  hand  warrants  such  treatment,  the  writer 
may  weave  the  facts  together  so  that  each  detail  points 


224 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


toward  the  one  impression,  and  there  will  seem  to  be  pur- 
pose or  motive  running  through  the  events  of  his  life.  (2) 
Another  method  is  to  introduce  anecdotes  to  illustrate 
various  points.  This  should  be  done  with  great  caution, 
however,  since  its  informality  may  destroy  the  dignity 
and  seriousness  necessary  in  an  article  announcing  death. 
The  amount  of  material  of  this  kind  depends  upon  the 
relation  of  the  deceased  to  the  community. 

Other  Biographical  Sketches.  —  Although  biographical 
sketches  written  for  other  occasions  than  the  announcement 
of  death  are  not  strictly  obituaries,  these  other  sketches  are 
similar  in  form.  The  chief  difference  lies  in  the  announce- 
ment in  the  first  paragraph  and  consequent  change  of  em- 
phasis throughout.  Suppose  that  a  noted  lecturer  is 
coming  to  town,  or  a  new  professor  has  been  appointed ;  the 
article  announcing  the  fact  is  often  accompanied  by  a  bio- 
graphical sketch,  and  the  facts  presented  in  it  are  much 
the  same  as  if  the  article  told  of  his  death.  More  would  be 
said,  however,  about  the  achievements  related  to  his  com- 
ing, and  the  article  would  look  to  the  future  rather  than 
toward  the  past.    The  following  is  a  typical  example : 

The  board  of  education  last  night  ap- 
pointed as  the  new  superintendent  of 
schools  John  D.  Jones,  former  instructor 
in  mathematics  in  the  high  school  and  now 
superintendent  of  schools  in  North  Bend, 
Iowa.  Mr.  Jones  will  bring  his  family  to 
this  city  about  August  1  to  assume  the 
position  at  the  opening  of  the  fall  term 
in  September. 

Mr.  Jones,  in  returning  to  the  schools 
of  this  city  after  nine  years'  service  in 
three  other  communities,  will  again  devote 
his  efforts  to  the  city  in  which  he  received 
his  own  education  and  .did  his  first  teach- 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHES 


225 


ing.  After  graduating  from  the  local  high 
school  in  1906  and  attending  the  state 
university  for  four  years,  he  taught 
mathematics  in  the  local  high  school  from 
1910  to  1912. 

His  interests  have  always  been  closely 
associated  with  this  city,  since  he  is  a 
native  of  this  county  and  his  parents  have 
lived  in  the  county  since  1880.  His  gram- 
mar school  education  he  received  at 
Prairieville,  ten  miles  from  this  city.  At 
the  state  university  he  received  a  prize  for 
a  county  history  written  as  a  thesis.  He 
w^as  gTaduated  as  valedictorian  of  the  class 
of  1910. 

Since  he  resigned  as  instructor  in 
mathematics  in  the  local  high  school  in 
1912,  he  has  served  as  principal  of  the 
Oregon  High  School  for  two  years,  super- 
intendent of  the  schools  of  Marshallton 
for  three  years,  and  superintendent  of 
schools  in  North  Bend  for  four  years. 


EXERCISES  XXIV 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  clip  several  obituaries  from 
newspapers  and  study  them.  Does  any  create  a  unified 
impression?  Analyze  the  word  usage  and  sentence 
structure  in  the  examples  in  the  chapter.  List  bio- 
graphical reference  books  available  in  the  library. 

Tuesday 

1.  Through  interviews  and  local  histories  get  the  facts 
about  the  life  and  achievements  of  one  of  the  oldest 
citizens  in  your  city — perhaps  a  pioneer. 

2.  In  class,  deliver  orally  a  biographical  sketch  of  this 
citizen  such  as  would  be  written  in  the  event  of  his 
death.  (If  such  facts  are  difficult  to  get,  obtain  from 
your  family  the  facts  in  the  life  of  a  relative.) 


226  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Wednesday 

1.  Write  a  sketch  of  a  person  of  national  repute,  obtaining 
the  data  from  "Who's  Who." 

2.  Optional  Select  a  famous  author  whom  you  would  like 
to  have  lecture  in  your  city  and  write  the  announcement 
of  his  coming  with  a  sketch  of  his  life  and  work.  Or, 
write  a  biographical  sketch  of  the  latest  newcomer  in 
the  faculty. 

3.  In  class,  rewrite  the  above  sketch  in  an  attempt  to  tie 
all  the  facts  to  a  single  achievement  or  characteristic 
and  thus  give  a  unified  impression.  Discuss  the  possible 
use  of  anecdotes. 

Thursday  Xewspaper  Study 

Signed  Articles 

There  was  a  time  in  American  journalism,  not  many  years 
ago,  when  each  newspaper  was  the  personal  expression  of  one 
man.  "The  editor"  was  known  to  his  readers  through  his 
editorials  and  through  news  articles  prepared  under  his  direc- 
tion. How  this  "personal  journalism"  has  disappeared  as 
newspapers  have  developed  into  stock  companies  with  great 
staffs  of  writers  and  editors,  we  noted  earlier  in  our  study. 
^^ Anonymous  journalism"  now  prevails  except  in  very  small 
newspapers,  and  many  editors  feel  that  there  has  been  great 
loss  in  personal  contact,  confidence,  and  sense  of  responsi- 
bility. To  regain  some  of  this  feeling,  many  efforts  are  now 
evident.  One  of  them  is  the  increasing  use  of  writers'  names 
over  articles.  It  was  first  seen  with  editorials.  The  signatures 
of  noted  correspondents  were  later  used.  The  press  associa- 
tions then  began  to  "sign"  their  best  writers.  The  local  staff 
followed  with  signatures  of  sport  editor,  society  editor,  and 
other  department  editors,  and  finally  with  a  growing  use  of 
the  names  of  local  reporters.  Whether  the  practice  results 
in  leturning  some  personality  to  journalism  or  whether  it 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHES  227 

will  fail  through  overuse  remains  to  be  seen.  Certainly  it 
is  a  spur  to  greater  accuracy,  better  newsgathering,  and  more 
careful  writing,  and,  while  the  public  cannot  always  dis- 
tinguish the  star  from  the  cub  reporter,  it  is  impressed  with 
the  human  side  of  newspaper  work.  Newspaper  folk  call 
these  signatures  ^*bye-lines." 

1.  What  proportion  of  the  articles  in  your  newspaper  carry 
signatures  at  the  head? 

2.  Which  of  these  signatures  are  names  of  persons  on  the 
local  staff,  which  on  the  j^ress  association  staffs,  and 
which  in  other  capacities? 

3.  How  many  of  these  names  do  you  recognize  as  well- 
known  writers?  How  many  names  of  press  association 
writers  do  you  know? 

4.  What  department  editors'  names  appear?  Is  there  any 
way  to  tell  who  writes  the  editorials  ? 

5.  Do  you  think  that  the  quality  of  writing  shows  any 
effect  of  the  use  of  signatures? 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  On  the  map  of  the  county  in  which  your  city  is  situated, 
study  the  city's  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  county.  What 
other  cities,  towms,  and  villages  are  there  in  the  county 
and  where  is  each  located? 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test.  What  are  the  industries 
and  populations  of  each  of  these  towns?  Do  you  know 
the  history  of  any  of  them  or  of  the  county's  settlement  ? 
Discuss  current  ncAvs  of  national  import  with  special 
attention  to  its  effect  upon  your  local  community. 


CHAPTEE  XXV 
EDITORIALS  THAT  EXPLAIN 

Altlioiigli  editorial  writing  is  a  special  brancli  of  journal- 
istic work  that  ordinarily  requires  age,  knowledge,  and 
ex2:)erience  as  a  foundation,  the  writing  of  editorials  affords 
excellent  practice  in  composition  for  young  writers,  if  the 
writer  will  take  care  not  to  consider  his  efforts  in  too 
serious  a  light.  He  must  remember  that,  although  one's 
knowledge  and  experience  may  be  sufficient  to  obtain  and 
record  facts  intelligently,  the  expression  of  commentaries 
on  these  facts  is  another  matter.  But,  even  so,  the  young 
w^riter  may  train  himself  in  thinking  and  expressing  his 
thoughts  by  experimenting  with  this  more  mature  branch 
of  journalistic  effort. 

Xo  other  branch  of  journalistic  writing  is  so  hard  to 
analyze  and  study  systematically  as  editorial  wa-iting. 
This  is  because  it  w^as  developed  at  an  earlier  date  than 
many  of  the  others  and  for  many  years  overshadowed  in 
importance  all  other  journalistic  work.  There  have  been, 
therefore,  many  styles  and  practices  in  editoHal  writing. 
The  editorials  of  today  are  different  from  any  of  bygone 
days.  The  general  tendency  now  seems  to  be  to  abandon 
the  old  idea  that  the  purpose  of  an  editorial  is  ^'to  con- 
vince" and  to  develop  in  the  place  of  this  purpose  the  idea 
than  an  editorial's  purpose  is  ^^to  explain."  Modern 
editorial  writers  devote  less  time  to  opinions  and  more  time 
to  facts.    The  editorial  that  may  be  called  "expositoiy"  is 

228 


EDITORIALS  THAT  EXPLAIN  229 

probably  tlie  commonest  in  American  periodicals  and  we 
shall  practice  with  it  first. 

Must  Be  Timely. —  The  chief  characteristic  of  any 
editorial  is  its  timeliness.  However  much  it  may  look  like 
an  essay  or  any  other  kmd  of  writing,  it  is  different  in  one 
respect — it  talks  about  timely  things,  about  current  events, 
about  things  that  have  happened  recently.  Editorials,  of 
course,  are  never  quite  so  up-to-the-minute  as  news  articles, 
but  a  study  of  editorial  pages  will  show  that  editorial 
writers  are  not  far  behind  the  news  writers.  In  fact,  in 
seeking  subjects  to  write  about,  editorial  writers  confine 
themselves  rather  closely  to  the  day's  news.  The  place  to 
look  for  a  subject  for  an  editorial  is,  therefore,  in  the  day's 
news. 

Purposes  of  Expository  Editorials. — The  purpose  of  an 
expository  editorial  is  to  explain  something  to  the  reader, 
to  digest  a  mass  of  facts  so  that  he  may  grasp  their  mean- 
ing. It  may  or  may  not  point  out  the  significance  of  the 
facts.  It  purposes  to  add  to  the  reader's  knowledge,  to  tell 
him  things  he  would  not  otherwise  learn  without  making  a 
special  study  of  the  subject.  What  are  some  of  the  things 
that  editorial  writers  try  to  explain  to  their  readers  ? 
While  writing  in  general  on  ^'the  meaning  of  the  day's 
news,"  they  are  likely  to  choose  subjects  from  four  main 
classes. 

1.  Neiu  Idea's. — One  large  class  of  subjects  is  concerned 
with  new  ideas  or  proposals  announced  in  the  day's  news. 
Eor  instance,  the  board  of  commerce  has  a  new  plan  for 
handling  the  credit  problem ;  the  school  board  has  added  a 
new  recreation  department;  the  city  council  is  studying 
garbage  disposal;  the  legislature  is  debating  a  mothers' 
pension  law;  a  citizen  has  invented  a  new  kind  of  agri- 


230  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

cultural  implement;  a  local  pastor  advocates  a  clmrch 
advertising  scheme.  All  of  these  things  will  be  duly  an- 
nounced in  the  day's  news,  but  the  news  writer  seldom  has 
the  space  for  detailed  explanations;  he  makes  the  an- 
nouncement. The  editorial  writer,  however,  may  write  an 
interesting,  instructive  expository  editorial  on  any  one  of 
the  announcements.  In  so  doing  he  tells  the  reader  the 
details  of  a  subject  announced  elsewhere. 

2.  Significance  of  Events. — Various  news  events  often  call 
for  explanations  which  will  drive  home  their  significance. 
A  railroad  wreck  points  out  the  danger  of  wooden  cars ;  an 
automobile  accident  shows  the  need  of  certain  traffic  or- 
dinances; a  fire  suggests  that  the  city  needs  motor  fire- 
fighting  equipment;  a  flood  shows  weakness  in  the  city's 
sewer  system.  The  details  of  the  particular  accident  are 
presented  in  the  news  columns,  but  it  is  the  editorial 
^vriter's  province  to  point  out  their  significance,  not  by 
simply  bewailing  them  and  maligning  the  persons  to  blame, 
but  by  gathering  information  and  explaining  w^hat  may  be 
done  to  prevent  similar  accidents  in  the  future.  The  wreck 
might  call  for  a  fact-essay  on  the  development  of  steel  rail- 
way equipment  and  figures  on  how  much  it  is  used  and  how 
much  it  has  decreased  the  dangers  of  travel.  The  auto- 
mobile accident  suggests  an  analysis  of  ordinances  in  other 
cities.  After  the  fire,  the  editorial  writer  might  explain 
what  equipment  other  cities  have.  The  flood  might  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  suggested  plan  for  new  storm  sewers  like  those 
in  other  cities. 

3.  Instructive  Essays. — Many  expository  editorials  are 
merely  suggested  by  the  day's  news.  A  discussion  of  the 
historical  background  of  various  things  and  events  is  often 
timely.     An  explanation  of  legal  or  political  tangles,  an 


EDITORIALS   THAT  EXPLAIN  231 

exposition  of  the  platform  of  a  political  party,  a  discussion 
of  any  new  laws  and  their  probable  results  are  things  often 
suggested  by  the  day's  news.  In  the  same  way,  explana- 
tions of  new  inventions  and  scientific  discoveries  or  even  of 
new  philosophic  thought  may  be  made  timely  and  interest- 
ing. 

•i.  Digests. — Another  province  of  the  expository  edi- 
torial is  that  of  summarizing  or  digesting  various  printed 
matter  for  busy  readers.  An  endless  stream  of  reports  and 
pamphlets  comes  to  the  newspaper  office  from  various  gov- 
ernmental bodies,  commissions,  private  enterprises,  and 
institutions.  Most  of  them  contain  valuable  information, 
but  they  are  generally  too  long  and  ^'dry"  to  interest  the 
average  reader.  If  he  is  to  get  the  information,  it  must  be 
digested  for  him  by  some  writer  who  has  time  to  read  the 
detailed  reports  and  summarize  them  clearly  in  a  few 
words.  This  the  editorial  writer  often  does  in  an  exposi- 
tory editorial. 

Writing  Expository  Editorials. — After  material  for  an 
expository  editorial  has  been  obtained  and  the  writer  is 
ready  to  begin  his  composition,  he  follows  the  ordinary 
rules  of  other  expository  writing.  The  first  step  is  to 
arrange  the  material  in  accordance  with  a  definite  outline. 
Since  brevity  is  one  of  the  chief  aims  in  the  editorial  and 
the  writer  ordinarily  has  much  more  material  than  he 
needs,  the  outlining  involves  much  weeding  out  in  order 
to  select  the  essential  facts  from  the  unessential.  A  good 
way  to  do  this  is  to  sum  up  the  editorial's  message  in  one 
sentence  and  then  select  enough  significant  material  to 
make  this  sentence  clear. 

For  example,  if  the  city  council  were  considering  the 
purchase  of  a  garbage  incinerator,  an  expository  editorial 


232  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

on  the  subject  might  be  summed  up  by  the  sentence:  ^^The 
city  council  favors  the  purchase  of  a  garbage  incinerator 
because  it  considers  it  the  cheapest  and  most  sanitary 
method  of  garbage  disposal'^  To  make  this  sentence  clear, 
the  editorial  writer  must  outline  other  possible  methods 
(dumping  in  open  fields,  burying,  feeding  to  swine,  etc.), 
facts  on  the  relative  cost  of  each  method,  and  sanitary 
reasons  for  and  against  each.  Such  an  essay  would  give 
every  citizen  a  clear  understanding  of  the  city  council's 
problem. 

This,  it  will  be  seen,  is  nothing  more  than  a  clear,  brief 
exposition.  It  differs  from  other  expositions,  however,  in 
that  it  is  timely;  it  discusses  a  problem  of  the  day  and  a 
subject  closely  related  to  the  news.  And  the  editorial 
writer  takes  pains  to  point  out  this  timeliness  early  in  his 
editorial.  In  the  example  above  a  reference  in  the  first 
paragraph  to  the  city  council's  discussion  establishes  the 
timeliness. 

Though  the  expository  editorial  must  be  brief  and  to  the 
point,  it  nevertheless  must  contain  as  many  facts  and  fig- 
ures as  possible.  Interest  depends  largely  on  the  amount 
of  actual,  concrete  material  in  the  editorial.  The  average 
reader  is  not  greatly  interested  in  generalities,  such  as: 
"This  kind  of  pavement  is  much  cheaper."  The  generality 
must  be  translated  into  concrete  terms,  as :  "This  pavement 
costs  $1.04  a. yard;  the  other  costs  $1.24;  this  means  a 
saving  of  $1G.56  for  the  owner  of  an  average  city  lot." 
This  tells  the  reader  exactly  what  it  means  to  liim,  and  he 
is  therefore  interested  in  it.  He  might,  of  course,  work  out 
the  saving  himself,  but  he  probably  will  not.  The  necessity 
of  talking  about  editorial  subjects  in  concrete  terms  is  so 
important  that  editorial  writers  use  many  devices  for  tell- 


EDITORIALS   THAT  EXPLAIN  233 

ing  their  entire  message  in  terms  of  actualities.     These 
methods  we  shall  study  later. 

The  editorial  that  presents  a  group  of  facts  rounded  out 
with  comment  is  illustrated  by  the  following,  which  ap- 
peared in  a  high-school  newspaper: 

The  Problem  of  English  ] 

Some  time  ag"o  a  very  interesting  ex- 
periment was  tried  out  in  order  to  deter- 
mine the  relative  positions  of  the  four 
high-school  English  classes.  In  order  to 
do  this,  the  same  test,  Clapp's  standard 
tests  for  English,  which,  by  the  way,  are 
eighth-gTade  tests,  was  given  to  each 
class. 

These  tests  demand  a  knowledge  of 
punctuation,  capitalization,  correct  use  of 
pronouns,  verbs,  adjectives,  and  adverbs. 
Every  high-school  student  should  have  a 
knowledge  of  at  least  the  fundamental 
principles  of  grammar  so  that  he  can 
apply  himself  more  efficiently  in  his  de- 
sire to  express  his  thoughts  correctly  and 
specifically. 

The  standard  median  for  an  eighth 
gTade  class  is  79.5.  The  following  are  the 
medians  for  the  classes :  senior — 92.5, 
junior — 81.5,  sophomore — 80.3,  freshman 
— 82.  Thus  the  senior  median  deviates 
thirteen' points,  the  junior  two,  the  sopho- 
more eight-tenths  of  a  point,  and  the 
freshman  median  two  and  five-tenths 
points. 

It  may  plainly  be  observed  that  the 
sophomore  and  junior  classes  are  far  be- 
low standard  gTade.  Such  a  condition 
should  not  exist.  It  is  impossible  to  bring 
these  classes  up  to  standard  in  one  year, 
or  in  two  years.  The  biggest  problem  at 
the  present  time  is  this,  "How  much  of  an 


234 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


improvement  can  be  accomplished  in  the 
shortest  timef  Progress  will  be  slow 
but  effort  is  being  made  to  make  an  im- 
provement noticeable  in  a  short  time. 

Plans  are  being  suggested  for  the  ob- 
servation of  "Good  English  Week,"— the 
week  of  November  7-11. 

We  shall  endeavor  to  make  every  week 
of  the  year  a  "Good  English  Week"  in 
order  to  obtain  the  best  results. 


EXERCISES  XXV 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  clip  five  expository  editorials 
from  current  newspapers.  Xotice  the  timeliness  and 
occasion  of  each.  How  is  it  expressed?  Make  an  out- 
line of  each. 

Tuesday 

1.  From  a  study  of  one  issue  of  a  daily  newspaper,  list  all 
possible  expository  editorials  suggested  by  the  news 
stories. 

2.  In  class,  write  a  150-word  editorial  on  one  of  these 
subjects. 

Wednesday 

1.  Write  one  of  the  following: 

(a)  Attend  a  meeting  of  the  city  council  and  afterward 
write  a  200-word  expository  editorial  on  a  current 
subject  that  the  city  legislature  discussed. 

(b)  Write  a  300-word  editorial  explaining  the  argu- 
ments presented  by  both  sides  in  a  current  school 
problem. 

(c)  Xotice  an  innovation  discussed  in  the  news  columns 
of  a  daily  newspaper,  investigate  it,  and  write  a 
500-word  editorial  explaining  it. 

(d)  Write  a  150-word  expository  editorial  outlining 
improvements  and  remedies  growing  out  of  a  recent 
accident. 


EDITORIALS  THAT  EXPLAIN  235 

2.  In  class,  study  these  editorials  to  see  how  many  of  the 
general  statements  might  be  translated  into  concrete 
terms. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

The  Editorial  Columns 

To  jnterpxet-ihe  news  is  the  purpose  of  the  editorial  page, 
and  it  is  usually  divided  into  two  parts:  (1)  the  editorial 
columns  proper,  presenting  the  comment  of  the  newspaper 
itself;  and  (2)  the  rest  of  the  page  usually  devoted  to  com- 
ments by  others.  The  two  parts  should  be  studied  separately. 
The  editorials,  which  express  the  opinion  and  policy  of  the 
newspaper,  are  written  by  the  editor-in-chief  and  a  staff  of 
editorial  writers  after  frequent  conferences.  The  prestige  of 
their  writings  rises  and  falls  with  public  interest.  Some 
generations  ago  the  editorials  expressed  the  personal  opinions 
of  a  single  editor  and  were  often  vigorous  arguments;  many 
readers  chose  their  newspaper  because  of  the  editorial  views 
of  its  editor.  Then  as  the  newspaper  grew  larger  and  readers 
became  more  interested  in  other  departments,  the  prestige 
of  the  editorial  waned.  To  rebuild  its  importance,  certain 
newspapers  moved  the  editorials  to  the  back  page  or  other- 
wise emphasized  them.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  during 
wars  and  other  periods  of  national  stress,  the  editorial  has 
wide  influence;  then  it  is  likely  to  be  argumentative.  In 
periods  of  calm  and  quiet  industry  its  importance  subsides, 
and  it  becomes  a  thoughtful  expository  interpretation  of 
events.  However  much  it  may  rise  and  fall,  it  is  likely  to 
continue  to  be  an  essential  part  of  every  newspaper. 

1.  Where  in  your  newspaper  is  the  editorial  page  placed? 
Does  it  have  a  special  typography?  How  much  of  it  is 
devoted  to  editorials? 

2.  What  facts  are  presented  in  the  "mast-head"  or  state- 
ment of  ownership  above  the  editorial  column? 


236  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

3.  Are  verses  or  quotations  used  at  the  head  of  the  column  ? 
What  pert  paragraphs  are  included?  What  kind  of 
titles  is  used? 

4.  Are  the  editorials  mainly  expository,  argumentative,  or 
just  timely  essays  ?  Is  there  an  effort  to  have  a  "leader," 
or  very  important  editorial,  at  the  head  each  day? 

5.  Are  the  editorial  subjects  timely?  Notice  the  occasion 
for  each  editorial  and  the  time  between  the  news  event 
and  the  editorial  comment.  Are  the  subjects  local  or 
of  wider  significance?  Do  they  express  vital  opinions? 
Do  they  inspire  thinking? 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  Study  your  county's  traffic  routes  on  the  map.  Trace 
and  name  each  railway.  AYhat  are  its  terminals  ?  AYhat 
towns  does  it  connect?  Trace  principal  highways. 
Mark  paved  highways.  Trace  marked  automobile  routes. 
On  your  city  maps  note  streets  that  connect  with  county 
highways. 

2.  In  class,  memory  test.  Trace  routes,  by  rail  or  motor, 
from  your  city  to  various  points  in  the  county.  What 
towns  are  most  accessible  ?  From  which  does  trade  come 
to  your  city?  Why?  Have  any  of  these  problems  been 
discussed  recently  in  the  newspapers?    Current  news. 


CHAPTEE  XXVI 
EDITORIALS  THAT  COMMENT 

One  step  beyond  the  editorial  that  merely  explains  or 
digests  is  the  editorial  that,  in  addition  to  explaining,  com- 
ments or  expresses  an  opinion  on  the  facts.  It  treats  the 
subject  somewhat  after  this  fashion:  '^Certain  citizens 
favor  the  laying  of  asphalt  pavement  on  Main  street  for 
such-and-such  reasons;  others  urge  the  use  of  creosoted 
wood  blocks  for  such-and-such  reasons ;  we  [the  editors  of 
the  News']  favor  wood  blocks."  Besides  telling  the  public 
all  the  arguments  for  and  against  each  kind  of  pavement 
and  explaining  the  entire  problem,  the  editorial,  after  it 
lias  completed  the  explanation,  tells  which  side  it  favors. 
In  the  same  way,  in  discussing  the  remedies  suggested  by 
an  accident,  the  contents  of  the  tax  commission's  report,  or 
the  arguments  advanced  for  a  new  tax,  the  editorial  not 
only  explains  the  subject  clearly,  but  passes  judgment  on 
the  facts. 

But  this  kind  of  editorial  is  at  bottom  an  exposition  and 
should  be  written  like  an  expository  editorial.  Its  com- 
ment or  opinion  is  usually  in  the  last  sentence  or  paragraph 
and  might  be  removed  without  destroying  the  clearness.  It 
is  necessary,  therefore,  to  outline  the  explanation  in  the 
same  way,  but  in  the  writing  the  author  keeps  in  mind 
throughout  the  kind  of  comment  that  he  intends  to  add  at 
the  end. 

237 


238  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Concrete  Terms. — In  an  editorial  that  comments,  even 
more  than  in  a  plain  exposition,  it  is  necessary  to  talk  in 
concrete,  specific  terms,  and  it  is  worth  while  to  study  the 
devices  by  which  this  may  be  done.  The  use  of  concrete 
terms  means  simply  the  expression  of  general  ideas  in 
terms  of  actual  cases.  Instead  of  talking  about  the  'public, 
we  talk  about  a  certain  man;  instead  of  saying,  ^^electric 
light  rates  would  be  lower,''  we  say,  ''the  average  family  of 
four  in  a  six-room  house  would  save  about  90  cents  a 
month."  In  translating  general  ideas  into  terms  that  have 
a  direct  bearing  on  the  reader,  the  writer  does  the  reader's 
thinking  for  him  and  tells  him  what  the  general  statements 
mean. 

Devices  for  introducing  concrete  material  or  translating 
ideas  into  concrete  terms  are  as  old  as  writing.  Most 
writers  use  them  unconsciously  and  do  not  trouble  to  label 
them.  Concrete  terms  are  valueless,  in  fact,  unless  they 
are  closely  related  to  the  subject ;  attempt  to  manufacture 
them  is  patent  and  ineffective.  For  the  sake  of  practice, 
however,  it  is  well  to  look  into  the  possibilities  of  these 
various  devices  so  that  we  may  use  all  of  them  to  obtain 
variety.     The  commonest  are  as  follows: 

1.  Examples. — The  term  explains  itself.  Probably  the 
the  best  concrete  material  to  illustrate  an  idea  is  an  ex- 
ample of  the  idea.  This  must  be  a  true  and  actual  example. 
For  instance,  if  we  are  writing  an  editorial  explaining 
honor  systems  in  schools,  we  may  describe  the  system  that 
is  in  use  in  such-and-such  a  school.  If  the  example  is 
presented  clearly,  little  space  need  be  devoted  to  elaborat- 
ing the  general  idea. 

2.  Illustrations. — The  example  mentioned  above  is  a 
real  example;  an  illustration  is  an  imaginary  example. 


EDITORIALS   THAT  COMMENT  239 

used  when  no  actual  example  can  be  found.  For  instance, 
in  explaining  a  new  football  rule,  we  may  illustrate  the 
idea  by  taking  the  hypothetical  case  of  an  imaginary 
player  and  pointing  out  how  the  new  rule  would  affect  his 
playing. 

3.  C omparison. — AMien  one  is  writing  about  a  new 
thing  with  which  readers  are  not  familiar,  the  idea  will 
often  be  clearer  if  it  is  compared  with  something  that  the 
reader  already  knows.  For  instance,  in  explaining  a  new 
student  self-government  scheme,  we  might  compare  the  pro- 
posed student  court  with  the  local  municipal  court  with 
the  workings  of  which  our  readers  are  familiar.  The  com- 
parison would  point  out  the  ways  in  which  the  two  are 
alike  and  the  ways  in  which  they  are  different.  It  must  be 
noted,  however,  that  the  two  things  must  be  the  same  hind 
of  things  or  they  cannot  be  compared ;  that  is,  you  cannot 
compare  a  court  and  an  engine. 

4.  Contrast. — Whereas  comparison  consists  in  pointing 
out  similarities,  contrast  is  based  on  dissimilarities.  The 
writer  makes  his  idea  clear  by  comparing  it  with  something 
that  it  is  not  like  and  pointing  out  the  differences.  For 
instance,  he  might  give  a  clear  idea  of  a  new  kind  of 
paving  material  by  pointing  out  how  it  is  unlike  asphalt 
pavement. 

5.  Analogy, — This  device  is  a  comparison  of  relations. 
It  is  impossible  to  compare  two  things  that  are  not  of  the 
same  kind  or  in  the  same  class,  but  it  is  entirely  possible 
to  compare  the  relation  of  two  things  of  one  kind  with  the 
relation  of  two  things  of  another  kind.  For  instance,  you 
cannot  compare  a  football  team  with  a  locomotive,  but  you 
might  compare  the  playing  of  a  halfback  on  a  well-trained 
team  to  the  movement  of  the  drive  rod  in  a  locomotive. 


240  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

This  device  is  used  more  commonly  in  argumentative  writ- 
ing, but  it  may  be  used  effectively  in  explanation. 

6.  Quotation. — This  is  not  exactly  the  same  kind  of 
device  as  those  above  but  should  be  noted  here  as  a  varia- 
tion of  the  use  of  examples.  The  direct  quotation  of  a 
man's  remark  or  his  exact  statement  in  writing  is  always 
more  effective  than  a  summary  or  an  indirect  quotation. 
Editorial  writers  use  quotation  marks  frequently  to  in- 
crease the  force  of  their  statements. 

Use  of  Illustrations. — Although  these  various  devices 
are  frequently  used  in  order  to  make  expository  editorials 
more  interesting,  it  is  obvious  that  the  writer  seldom  uses 
them  in  a  formal  or  patent  manner.  He  does  not  neces- 
sarily begin  with  his  general  idea  and  then  artificially 
illustrate  it.  The  example  or  illustration  which  he  has  in 
mind  may  be  his  only  reason  for  writing  an  editorial  on 
the  idea  thus  illustrated;  he  may  therefore  devote  almost 
all  of  his  space  to  the  example  and  round  out  the  general 
idea  at  the  end.  In  the  same  way,  a  good  comparison 
which  occurs  to  him  may  constitute  an  entire  editorial. 
The  less  formal  and  more  original  the  treatment,  the  better 
the  editorial  is  likely  to  be. 

Editorial  Tests — There  are  few  rules,  in  general,  to 
guide  the  writer  of  editorials.  What  the  writer  seeks  is 
convincing  force  and  interest.  In  English  composition 
terms,  he  needs  unity  and  coherence  in  his  editorial. 
Translated,  this  means  that  the  writer  must  know  exactly 
why  he  is  writing  the  editorial  and  luTiat  point  he  wishes 
to  make ;  he  must  develop  his  idea  logically  and  must  stop 
when  he  thinks  his  idea  is  clear.  Good  tests  are  the  follow- 
ing: (1)  Would  the  editorial  interest  anyone  who  is  not 
especially  interested  in  the  subject  ?     (2)  Can  the  editorial 


EDITORIALS   THAT   COMMENT  241 

be  summed  up  in  one  simple  sentence?  (3)  Will  the 
reader  understand  and  believe  it  ?  A  good  way  to  obtain 
the  proper  tone  is  to  imagine,  as  you  write,  that  you  are 
talking  to  a  person  who  knows  nothing  of  the  subject  and 
are  trying  to  convince  him ;  it  will  be  more  forceful  than 
if  you  write  ^^up  in  the  air"  at  anyone. 

The  following  editorial  by  Frank  M.  O'Brien  of  the 
New  York  Herald,  published  on  Xov.  11,  1921,  won  the 
annual  Pulitzer  prize  ^'for  the  best  editorial  article  written 
during  the  year,  the  test  of  excellence  being  clearness  of 
style,  moral  purpose,  sound  reasoning,  and  the  power  to 
influence  public  opinion  in  the  right  direction/' 

The  Unknown  Soldier 

That  which  takes  place  today  at  the 
National  Cemeteiy  in  Arlington  is  a  sym- 
bol, a  mystery  and  a  tribute.  It  is  an 
entombment  only  in  the  physical  sense. 
It  is  rather  the  enthronement  of  Duty 
and  Honor.  This  man  who  died  for  his 
country  is  the  symbol  of  these  qualities; 
a  far  more  perfect  symbol  than  any  man 
could  be  whose  name  and  deeds  we  knew. 
He  represents  more,  really,  than  the  un- 
identified dead,  for  we  can  not  separate 
them  spiritually  from  the  war  heroes 
whose  names  are  written  on  their  grave- 
stones. He — this  spirit  whom  we  honor 
— stands  for  the  unselfishness  of  all. 

This,  of  all  monuments  to  the  dead,  is 
lasting  and  immutable.  So  long  as  men 
revere  the  finer  things  of  life  the  tomb  of 
the  nameless  hero  will  remain  a  shrine. 
Nor,  with  the  shifts  of  time  and  mind, 
can  there  be  a  changing  of  values.  No 
historian  shall  rise  to  modify  the  virtues 
or  the  faults  of  the  Soldier.  He  has  an 
immunitv   for   which   kings   might   pray. 


242 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


The  years  may  bring  erosion  to  the  gran- 
ite but  not  to  the  memory  of  the  Un- 
known. 

It  is  a  common  weakness  of  humanity 
to  ask  the  questions  that  can  never  be 
answered  in  this  life.  Probably  none  to 
whom  the  drama  of  the  Unknown  Soldier 
has  appealed  has  not  wondered  who,  in 
the  sunshine  of  earth,  was  the  protagonist 
of  today's  ceremony.  A  logger  from  the 
Penobscot?  An  orchardist  from  the 
Pacific  Coast?  A  well-driller  from  Texas? 
A  machinist  from  Connecticut?  A  lad 
who  left  his  hoe  to  rust  among  the  Mis- 
souri corn?  A  longshoreman  from  Hell's 
Kitchen?  Perhaps  some  youth  from  the 
tobacco  fields,  resting  again  in  his  own 
Virginia.  All  that  the  Army  tells  us  of 
him  is  that  he  died  in  battle.  All  that  the 
heart  tells  is  that  some  woman  loved  him. 
More  than  that  no  man  shall  learn.  In 
this  mystery,  as  in  the  riddle  of  the  uni- 
verse, the  wise  wonder;  but  they  would 
not  know. 

What  were  his  dreams,  his  ambitions? 
Likely  he  shared  those  common  to  the 
millions:  a  life  of  peace  and  honest 
struggle,  with  such  small  success  as  comes 
to  most  who  try ;  and  at  the  end  the  place 
on  the  hillside  among  his  fathers.  Today 
to  do  honor  at  his  last  resting-place  come 
the  greatest  soldiers  of  the  age,  famous 
statesmen  from  other  continents,  the 
President,  the  high  judges  and  the  legis- 
lators of  his  own  country,  and  many  men 
who,  like  himself,  fought  for  the  flag.  At 
his  bier  will  gather  the  most  remarkable 
group  that  America  has  seen.  And  the 
tomb  which  Fate  reserved  for  him  is,  in- 
stead of  the  narrow  cell  on  the  village 
hillside,  one  as  lasting  as  that  of  Rameses 
and  as  inspiring  as  Napoleon's. 


EDITORIALS   THAT   COMMENT  243 

It  is  a  great  religious  ceremony,  this 
burial  today.  The  exaltation  of  the 
nameless  bones  would  not  be  possible 
except  for  Belief.  Where  were  Duty  and 
Honor,  the  well-springs  of  Victory,  if 
mankind  feared  that  death  drew  a  black 
curtain  behind  which  lay  nothing  but  the 
dark?  So  all  in  whom  the  spark  of  hope 
has  not  died  can  well  believe  that  we,  to 
whom  the  Soldier  is  a  mystery,  are  not 
a  mystery  to  him.  They  can  believe  that 
the  watchers  at  Arlington  today  are  not 
merely  a  few  thousands  of  the  living  but 
the  countless  battalions  of  the  departed. 
"Tho  he  were  dead,  yet  shall  he  live" — 
there  is  the  promise  to  which  men  hold 
when  everything  of  this  earth  has  slipt 
away. 

All  the  impressive  ritual  of  today 
would  be  a  mockery  if  we  did  not  believe 
that,  out  in  an  infinity  which  astronomers 
can  not  chart  or  mathematicians  bound, 
the  Unknown  Soldier  and  all  the  glorious 
dead  whom  we  honor  in  his  dust  are  look- 
ing down  upon  this  little  spinning  ball, 
conscious  of  our  reverence.  And  when 
noon  strikes,  signal  for  the  moment  of 
silent  prayer,  few  of  those  who  stand 
with  bared  head  will  lack  conviction  that 
the  rites  at  Arlington  are  viewed  by  other 
than  mortal  eyes.  Only  in  that  spirit  may 
we  honor  the  Unknown  Soldier  and  those 
who,  like  him,  died  for  this  Republic. 

Unknown,  but  not  unknowing! 

EXERCISES  XXVI 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  seek  in  newspaper  editorial 
columns  an  example  of  each  of  the  kinds  of  concrete 
material  discussed.  N'otice  just  how  this  material  is 
handled.     Criticize  it. 


244  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Tuesday 

1.  Prepare  for  class  discussion  the  following  editorial  ma- 
terial : 

(a)  What  new  movement  or  idea  has  been  suggested 
or  put  into  operation  recently  in  your  community, 
school,  or  city  that  might  be  made  the  subject  of 
an  expository  editorial?  Do  you  approve  of  the 
idea? 

(b)  List  the  details  of  this  idea  that  are  new  and  that 
must  be  explained  to  a  stranger. 

(c)  After  each  item  on  the  list  jot  down  a  concrete 
illustration — example,  illustration,  comparison,  con- 
trast, analogy,  or  quotation — that  would  make  the 
idea  clearer. 

^Yednesday 

1.  Following  the  above  outline,  write  an  editorial  explain- 
ing the  idea  or  movement  to  someone  who  has  never 
heard  of  it  before.  ^York  in  all  of  the  illustrations.  Do 
not  exceed  500  words.  At  the  end  of  the  editorial  briefly 
give  your  opinion. 

2.  In  class,  write  on  the  same  subject  another  editorial  in 
which  you  explain  the  same  idea  by  means  of  but  one 
of  your  illustrations.  It  might  be  well  to  begin  with 
the  illustration  and  work  up  to  the  subject.  Add  your 
judgment  at  the  end. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Rest  of  Editorial  Fage 

What  to  place  in  the  rest  of  the  editorial  page  left  by  the 
formal  editorials  is  a  great  problem  in  newspaper  offices. 
Much  variety  is  seen  in  its  solution.  Obviously,  thoughtful 
reading  matter  other  than  news,  that,  in  general,  interprets 
the  news,  is  needed.  Certain  newspapers  divide  the  space 
into  regular  sections:  a  "Best  Editorial"  from  other  news- 
papers,  a   "Readers'    Forum"   devoted   to   letters,   a   humor 


EDITORIALS   THAT   COMMENT  245 

column,  some  service-to-readers  departments,  essays  on  health, 
dress,  and  well-being,  often  regular  essays  by  well-known 
writers.  But  these  departments  are  a  great  burden  to  main- 
tain at  a  consistent  standard.  Usually  most  of  the  page  is 
edited  by  the  exchange  editor,  who  clips  interesting  things 
from  other  ne\\-spapers  and  periodicals — ^^miscellany,"  as  it 
is  called.  It  is  not  easy  to  select  and  edit  readers'  letters, 
for  but  few  are  worth  publishing.  A  good  humor  column 
usually  takes  all  of  one  man's  time.  Many  departments  and 
many  special  articles  may,  of  course,  be  purchased  from  syn- 
dicates or  other  newspapers.  The  page  may,  in  general,  be 
a  hodgepodge  of  cheap  material  bought  or  clipped  and  hastily 
put  together,  or  it  may  show  the  painstaking  effort  of  one 
or  more  trained  workers.  Almost  any  newspaper  man  can 
evaluate  the  work  and  money  devoted  to  it.     Can  you  ? 

1.  ^Tiat  departments  appear  regularly  on  the  editorial  page 
of  your  newspaper?  How  much  space  is  filled  by  a 
different  kind  of  material  each  day? 

2.  Determine  the  source  of  each  kind  of  material.  How 
many  of  the  regular  features  are  purchased  from  syn- 
dicates or  other  newspapers?  How  many  are  prepared 
in  the  local  office? 

3.  Can  you  estimate  how  much  the  exchange  editor  pro- 
vides each  day?  What  newspapers  and  magazines  does 
he  read,  as  indicated  by  the  credit  lines  ? 

4.  TMiat  special  typographical  arrangements  are  there? 
What  devices  are  used  to  make  the  page  attractive? 

5.  Is  a  cartoon  or  other  pictorial  matter  used?  Where 
obtained  ? 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  List  the  townships  in  your  county.  Where  is  each 
located?  Where  is  its  town  hall?  If  the  schoolhouses 
and  churches  are  marked  on  the  map,  notice  the  relative 
population  of  each  township  as  indicated  by  their  num- 
ber. 


246  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test.  Your  study  has  told 
what  parts  of  the  county  are  richest  and  most  thickly 
populated.  Do  you  know  the  reason  for  this  condition? 
What  is  the  total  population?  How  many  churches  per 
1,000  persons?    How  many  schools?    Current  news. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
EDITORIALS  THAT  ARGUE 

There  was  a  time  when  ^^editorial"  was  practically 
synonymoiTS  with  "argument."  The  editorial  writer's 
chief  purpose  was  to  convince  the  public  of  his  manner  of 
thinking.  With  the  development  of  expository  arguments 
to  explain  and  teach,  however,  the  argumentative  editorials 
no  longer  predominate  except  at  election  time.  Editorial 
argument,  nevertheless,  is  excellent  practice  in  writing  and 
thinking,  because  it  is  based  on  clean-cut  logic. 

To  write  argumentative  editorials  of  the  first  water,  one 
must  be  trained  in  argumentation  and  debate.  Such  an 
editorial  is  virtually  one  side  of  a  debate ;  an  editorial  con- 
troversy between  two  newspapers  is  a  debate  on  paper. 
Knowledge  of  logic  and  reasoning  processes  is  more  neces- 
sary than  skill  in  composition.  It  will  be  possible  only  to 
skim  the  surface  in  our  study,  but  the  skimming  will  open 
up  the  interesting  possibilities  for  further  study. 

The  Proposition. — Xeedless  to  say,  the  first  thing  neces- 
sarv  for  an  editorial  arc^ument  is  something  to  ars^ue — that 
is,  a  question  with  two  sides,  or  a  proposition^  as  debaters 
call  it.  The  formulation  of  the  proposition  is  probably  the 
most  important  step.  It  is  the  lack  of  a  formulated 
proposition  that  leads  a  writer  to  talk  all  around  a  subject 
without  once  hitting  it.  One  cannot  argue  about  "dis- 
armament," because  the  word  contains  a  hundred  proposi- 
tions and  debate  requires  centering  upon  one  problem,  such 

247 


248  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

as  "Is  disarmament  safe  for  America  ?" — or,  more  point- 
edly, '^Will  disarmament  lessen  the  danger  of  war  V  The 
last  is  a  debatable  proposition,  for  it  has  two  sides,  the 
issues  are  clear  cut,  and  there  is  a  chance  to  keep  the 
debaters  on  the  subject.  In  the  same  way,  every  subject 
for  an  editorial  argument  must  first  be  analyzed  and  re- 
duced to  a  debatable  proposition. 

The  Issues. — The  next  step  is  to  pin  the  argument  down 
to  the  proposition,  to  keep  it  from  wandering  into  side 
issues.  Certain  arguments,  which  have  been  threshed  over 
for  years  in  the  newspapers,  are  not  settled  yet,  simply  be- 
cause no  writer  "talked  on  the  question."  In  the  above 
proposition  on  disarmament,  for  example,  one  might  write 
columns  about  the  horrors  of  modern  warfare,  painting 
word  pictures  that  would  soften  a  flint  heart,  and  yet  one 
would  be  entirely  off  the  question,  for  everyone  admits  the 
dreadfulness  of  war.  The  proof  demanded  is  that  dis- 
armament will  reduce  the  danger  of  war.  Many  a  writer 
purposely  "begs  the  question"  in  this  manner  because  he 
has  no  arguments  and  hopes  to  dupe  his  readers;  other 
writers  do  it  because  they  do  not  think  clearly.  The  only 
remedy  for  either  is  to  present  the  issues  in  clear-cut  man- 
ner and  demand  proof. 

Analysis. — This  "talking  around  the  point"  can  be  fore- 
stalled if  the  writer  will  (1)  state  the  proposition  clearly/ 
(2)  define  the  issues,  and  (3)  point  out  irrelevant  matterA 
To  do  this,  he  must  define  all  terms  involved ;  for  example,' 
the  meaning  of  "disarmament."  He  must  indicate  the 
points  that  are  admitted ;  for  instance,  "that  modern  war- 
fare is  horrible."  And  he  must  enumerate  the  issues  at 
stake,  taking  care  not  to  overlook  an  issue  which  his  op- 
ponent may  seize  upon.     After  his  analysis,  he  is  ready  to 


EDITORIALS  THAT  ARGUE  249 

say  to  his  readers :  ^'When  I  prove  these  points,  you  must 
admit  that  I  am  right,  for  these  are  the  only  issues.''  Xot 
until  he  has  analyzed  the  problem  to  that  extent  is  he  ready 
to  argue.  This  preliminary  work  of  laying  out  the  case 
and  clearing  the  ground  is  easily  half  the  debate ;  many  an 
argument  is  won  when  the  issues  have  been  clearly  defined. 
Quibbling  over  terms  is  not  arguing;  the  terms  must  be 
defined  before  the  arguing  begins. 

Proof  Required. — When  the  proposition  is  analyzed  and 
the  issues  are  clearly  stated,  proof  is  needed  to  complete 
the  argument.  It  is  not  enough  to  say,  ^'I  think  this,"  and 
^'I  believe  that" ;  the  writer  must  prove  his  points.  Two 
kinds  of  proof  are  at  his  disposal:  (1)  testimony  of 
authorities,  and  (2)  reasoning  from  facts. 

Authority. — Proving  by  authority,  or  direct  evidence, 
consists  in  stating  or  quoting  the  statements  of  persons  who 
will  be  accepted  as  authorities.  To  depend  upon  these 
authorities,  one  must  be  sure  that  they  will  be  accepted ; 
that  is,  ( 1 )  the  authority  must  be  definitely  referred  to ; 
(2)  he  must  be  an  expert  on  the  subject  or  one  who  has 
had  an  opportunity  to  know  the  facts ;  (3)  and  he  must  be 
unprejudiced.  Unless  your  readers  accept  him  as  such,  his 
statements  will  have  no  weight.  And  it  is  not  enough 
merely  to  quote  him ;  the  writer  must  show  the  value  of  his 
testimony  and  its  bearing. 

Evidence. — Reasoning  from  facts,  or  by  indirect  or  cir- 
cumstancial  evidence,  is  a  more  difficult  process  and  less 
conclusive.  The  facts  that  constitute  the  proof  must  fit 
together  perfectly  and  must  stand  the  test  of  reasoning. 
If  there  is  a  flaw  anywhere  in  the  structure  of  facts,  one 
break  in  the  logical  sequence,  or  one  doubtful  step,  the 
entire  argument  will  crumble.     That  is  why  juries  seldom 


250  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

convict  on  circnmstantial  evidence ;  they  demand  the  more 
conclusive  evidence  of  reliable  authorities — witnesses. 

Other  Reasoning. — While  investigating  the  processes  of 
logic,  it  is  worth  while  to  note  briefly  some  of  the  common 
kinds  of  reasoning  by  which  issues  are  proved.  The  three 
common  kinds  are  inductive,  deductive,  and  causal. 

1.  Inductive. — This  method  of  reasoning  consists  in 
deriving  general  laws  concerning  a  whole  class  of  persons 
or  things  from  observation  of  a  few  examples  of  the  class. 
For  instance,  because  four  students  of  your  acquaintance 
who  studied  Greek  in  high  school  achieved  honors  in  col- 
lege, you  might  argue  that  all  students  who  learn  Greek  in 
high  school  will  achieve  honors  in  college.  You  are  draw- 
ing a  general  conclusion  concerning  hundreds  of  students 
on  the  basis  of  four  examples.  When  logically  done,  this 
kind  of  reasoning  is  successful ;  in  fact,  it  is  the  basis  of 
almost  all  modern  science  and  philosophy.  This  kind  of 
inductive  reasoning  is  called  generalization  from  examples. 
When  using  it,  the  writer  must  take  care:  (1)  that  his 
examples  are  fair  ones;  (2)  that  he  has  enough  examples 
to  warrant  generalizing;  (3)  that  there  are  no  obvious 
exceptions;  and  (4)  that  the  conclusion  is  reasonable — 
else  his  argument  will  be  easy  to  refute.  Perhaps  the  four 
boys  were  exceptional  in  some  way. 

Another  kind  of  inductive  reasoning  is  argument  from 
an  analogy  or  comparison.  For  example,  one  might  argue 
that,  because  self-government  was  a  failure  in  Smithville 
College,  it  would  be  a  failure  in  Jonosville  School.  It  is  a 
good  method  of  argument,  but  again  there  are  dangers: 
(1)  the  points  of  similarity  between  the  two  cases  must  be 
essential  to  the  argument ;  (2)  they  must  not  be  outweighed 
by  dissimilarities;    (3)    the   facts   must   be   true   of  the 


EDITORIALS   THAT  ARGUE  251 

analogous  case;  and  (4)  the  induction  must  be  reasonable. 
If  Smithville  has  a  rougher  class  of  students  than  Jones- 
ville,  the  argument  may  fall  down. 

2.  Deductive. — This  is  the  application  of  generally  ac- 
cepted laws  to  individual  cases.  For  instance,  it  is  a  gen- 
erally accepted  theory  that  loafers  never  achieve  success; 
we  might  therefore  argue  that,  because  John  Smith  is  a 
loafer,  he  will  not  succeed.  Our  argument  consists  of  a 
syllogism  of  two  premises  and  a  conclusion,  thus:  first 
premise,  ''Loafers  fail'' ;  second  premise,  ''John  is  a 
loafer' ;  conclusion,  "John  will  fail."  The  danger  in  this 
kind  of  argument  is  two-fold :  ( 1 )  that  our  general  law  or 
theory  (first  premise)  is  not  true;  or  (2)  that  our  case 
(second  premise)  does  not  come  under  the  law.  Xowadays 
when  persons  are  likely  to  demand  proof  of  every  theory, 
it  usually  takes  longer  to  establish  the  first  premise  than  it 
does  to  prove  the  case  in  some  other  way. 

3.  Causal  Reasoning. — Another  method  of  reasoning  in- 
volves a  causal  relation  between  two  facts.  There  are  three 
variations : 

A  posteriori  (from  efiect  to  cause).  This  reasoning  in- 
volves seeking  the  cause  of  an  event  or  situation.  For 
example,  in  seeking  the  cause  of  the  high  cost  of  living,  we 
blame  it  on  the  cost  of  delivery  of  retail  sales.  To  main- 
tain our  argument,  we  must  prove:  (1)  that  the  cause 
stated  is  sufficient  to  produce  the  effect;  (2)  that  no  other 
cause  could  produce  it ;  and  (3)  that  no  other  forces  hinder 
its  operation. 

A  priori  (from  cause  to  effect).  This  reasoning  consists 
in  pointing  out  the  probable  effect  of  a  present  condition ; 
it  may  involve  events  in  the  past  or  it  may  forecast  the 
effect  of  present  events.     For  instance,  we  may  argue  that 


252  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

the  establishment  of  an  eight-hour  day  (cause)  will  raise 
prices  (effect).  To  maintain  this  argument,  we  must 
prove:  (1)  that  the  cause  is  sufficient  to  produce  the  effect, 
and  (2)  that  no  other  conditions  interfere  with  its  opera- 
tion. 

By  sign  (from  effect  to  cause  to  effect).  This  involves 
finding  the  cause  of  one  condition  and  arguing  that  the 
same  cause  will  result  similarly  in  a  like  case.  For  in- 
stance, we  might  argue  that  Henry  Jones  failed  in  college 
because  he  had  an  automobile  and  therefore  John  Smith 
will  fail  if  he  has  an  automobile.  The  reasoning  is  a  com- 
bination of  the  two  other  kinds  above,  and  therefore  the 
same  tests  apply.     It  is  also  practically  an  analogy. 

Logical  Treatment. — These  are  simply  a  few  of  the 
processes  of  reasoning.  Needless  to  say,  few  editorial 
writers  analyze  the  method  they  are  using  or  confine  them- 
selves to  one  method  of  reasoning  in  trying  to  prove  a  case. 
But  the  aim  in  argumentative  writing  is  not  only  to  present 
a  reasonable  argument  but  also  to  close  all  avenues  of 
attack  to  the  opponent.  It  is  often  well,  therefore,  to 
analyze  the  reasoning  involved,  classify  it,  and  to  apply 
tests  to  it  to  see  that  there  are  no  loopholes  or  weak  joints. 
V  Since  this  is  so,  argumentative  writing  consists  quite  as 
much  of  preliminary  reasoning  as  it  does  of  writing.  Be- 
cause the  editorial  must  be  short  and  to  the  point,  it  is 
necessary  to  plan  it  out  and  make  a  careful  outline  before 
attempting  to  write  a  word.  This  preliminary  planning 
involves:  (1)  formulating  the  proposition,  (2)  eliminat- 
ing all  irrelevant  points,  (3)  outlining  the  issues,  and  (4) 
deciding  just  what  proof  is  needed.  Although  most  of 
this  preliminary  planning  will  not  be  written  into  the 
editorial,  it  will  aid  the  writer  in  clearing  decks  for  action. 


EDITORIALS   THAT  ARGUE 


253 


Under  no  circumstances  should  he  attempt  to  write  an 
editorial  argument  without  planning  it  out  beforehand. 

An  argumentative  editorial,  based  on  a  rather  definite 
kind  of  reasoning,  is  the  following,  from  a  city  newspaper. 
What  kind  of  reasoning  is  it  ? 

Numbers  for  Football  Players 

The  stars  in  the  heavens  may  indeed 
differ  from  one  another  in  glory,  but  they 
are  best  told  apart  because  they  keep  in 
place.  Not  so  the  stars  of  the  football 
field,  whose  orbits  arc  irregular  and 
whose  collisions  add  to  ihe  confusion. 
And  the  question  is  asked,  Why  not  give 
the  men  numbers?  The  stars  of  the 
bicycle  track,  the  stars  at  aeroplane 
meets,  even  the  stars  in  opera  boxes  are 
numbered  one  way  or  another.  Why 
should  the  stars  of  the  gridiron  alone 
remain  indistinguishable  ? 

It  is  said  that  some  of  the  eastern  men 
condemn  the  idea;  it  savors,  they  think, 
of  hippodroming.  But  they  may  remem- 
ber having  seen,  in  the  old  horse  show 
days,  persons  of  equal  brilliancy  and  im- 
portance with  numbered  placards  set  in 
the  small  of  the  back.  And  in  all  track 
sports,  where  the  confusion  seldom  equals 
that  of  the  football  field,  numbers  are 
worn  with  no  derogation  of  dignity. 

Numbers  would  help  to  a  better  under- 
standing of  lively  doings,  would  lead  to 
more  accurate  reporting  and  would  in- 
stantly enable  vast  audiences  enjoying  no 
personal  acquaintance  with  individual 
performers  to  give  credit  where  credit 
was  due.  A  number  stuck  on  the  back  so 
as  to  stay  there  and  carried  to  victory 
might  make  quite  as  satisfactory  a  trophy 
as  any  of  the  H's,  C's  or  Y's  now  in 
vogue. 


254  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

EXERCISES  XXVII 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  clip  the  longest  argumen- 
tative editorial  you  can  find  in  a  newspaper.  Notice 
the  timeliness.  What  is  the  proposition?  Is  it  clearly 
defined?  Are  the  issues  clearly  pointed  out?  Is  it 
convincing?  If  not,  where  is  the  weakness?  What 
kind  of  reasoning  is  employed? 

Tuesday 

1.  Prepare  the  following  for  class  discussion,  worked  out 

on  paper : 

(a)  Select  as  a  subject  for  an  argumentative  editorial 
a  problem  that  is  being  discussed  in  your  school 
or  city  and  try  to  reduce  it  to  a  debatable  proposi- 
tion. Before  going  further,  test  this  proposition 
to  be  sure  that  it  allows  no  opportunity  for  quib- 
bling or  begging  the  question. 

(&)  List  the  current  arguments  on  this  question  that 
seem  to  be  irrelevant  or  beside  the  point.  Weed 
out  every  point  that  has  no  bearing,  as  well  as 
points  that  are  admitted  by  both  sides.     ' 

(c)  List  the  real  issues  that  need  proof.  Be  sure  that 
you  have  included  all  the  issues  so  that  your  op- 
ponent will  have  no  loophole  for  reply. 

(d)  Make  an  outline  of  all  the  evidence,  either  direct 
testimony  or  indirect  facts,  that  support  your  view. 

(e)  Having  studied  the  problem  in  such  detail,  make 
an  outline  of  the  ground  to  cover  and  the  proof 
to  be  presented.     Build  up  the  logic  carefully. 

Wednesday 

1.  After  the  above  class  discussion  has  cleared  your  ideas, 
write  your  editorial  argument  in  500  words  or  less. 

2.  In  class,  go  over  the  arguments,  sentence  by  sentence, 
to  discover  loopholes  left  for  the  opponent.  Eliminate 
every  repetition  and  useless  word.    What  kind,  or  kinds. 


EDITORIALS   THAT   ARGUE  255 

of  reasoning  have  you  used.    Would  another  kind  have 

been  as  effective? 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

The  Woman's  Page 

Under  whatever  name  it  may  appear,  the  special  page  for 
women  is  comparatively  an  innovation  in  newspapers.  Old- 
time  newspapers  were  built  for  men  readers;  they  made  little 
appeal  to  women.  But  during  the  last  few  years  almost  every 
American  newspaper  has  launched  some  device,  some  page, 
or  some  feature  especially  for  women.  The  reason  is,  of 
course,  partly  a  business  reason — an  advertising  reason,  from 
several  points  of  view.  First,  the  ncAvspaper  that  interests 
women  and  children  goes  into  the  home  and  is  thoroughly 
read  instead  of  being  glanced  at  and  thrown  away.  Second, 
advertisers  believe  that  women  read  and  respond  to  adver- 
tising more  than  men  do,  and  that  women  are  the  real  buyers 
for  the  home.  Much  advertising  nowadays  is  written  to 
appeal  especially  to  women,  and,  therefore,  advertisers  seek 
newspapers  that  are  read  by  women.  But,  aside  from  busi- 
ness reasons,  the  development  of  newspapers  of  interest  to 
women,  as  well  as  men,  is  a  worthy  enterprise.  The  most 
interesting  phase  of  the  development,  moreover,  is  seen  in 
the  effort  of  editors  to  determine  what  special  reading  matter 
interests  women.  The  woman's  pages  have  evidenced  a  great 
variety.  At  first,  they  were  either  quite  thoughtful  or  quite 
trivial;  later  their  editors  began  to  borrow  ideas  from  the 
successful  magazines  for  women.  Xow  certain  kinds  of  ma- 
terial are  always  included  while  there  is  still  much  casting 
about  for  new  varieties. 

1.  How  much  of  the  space  in  your  newspaper  is  written 
especially  for  women  readers  ?    How  is  it  distinguished  ? 

2.  Study  the  subject  matter  of  this  material.     Judge  its 


256  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

value.     How  much  would  interest  your  mother?     How 
much  a  younger  woman? 

3.  Is  the  editor  of  the  page  in  evidence?  AMiat  pictorial 
or  typographical  features  are  employed?  What  regular 
departments  daily? 

4.  From  what  sources  is  the  material  obtained  ?  How  much 
is  prepared  in  the  local  office? 

5.  How  much  of  the  regular  news  and  what  other  depart- 
ments are  likely  to  interest  women?  Do  you  see  any- 
thing that  they  would  consider  objectionable? 

6.  How  many  of  the  advertisements  appeal  directly  to 
women  ? 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  Study  your  county's  topography.  Locate  its  lakes, 
rivers,  and  streams.  What  are  its  main  drainage  basins 
and  watersheds?  Into  what  drainage  basins  do  its 
streams  flow?  What  parts  of  the  county  are  hilly,  flat, 
wooded,  marshy,  etc.  ?  What  sections  contain  the  rich- 
est soil? 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test.  AVhat  relation  do  you 
see  between  these  facts  and  the  distribution  of  popula- 
tion or  the  industrial  activity?  How  is  the  topography 
related  to  historical  events  ?  Where  did  the  names  come 
from?    Current  news. 


CHAPTER  XXYIII 
REPLYING  IN  EDITORIALS 

Quite  as  interesting  as  writing  editorial  arguments  is 
the  writing  of  editorial  replies  to  arguments — refutations, 
as  debaters  call  them.  As  much  skill  is  required  to  break 
down  an  argument  as  to  build  one,  but  often  editorial  refu- 
tations show  little  of  this  skill.  Many  are  merely  indig- 
nant expostulations  and  contradictions,  and,  although  they 
generate  heated  feeling,  they  do  not  destroy  arguments. 
A  skillful  reply  does  not  consist  in  declaring  in  heated 
language  that  the  opponent's  statements  are  ''all  wrong.'^ 
It  consists  in  a  cool,  systematic  attack  at  the  opponent's 
argument  to  show  exactly  ''what  is  wrong." 

Xine-tenths  of  the  success  of  the  reply  depends  upon  the 
point  of  attack.  It  is  not  necessary  to  answer  every  state- 
ment the  opponent  makes  or  to  quibble  with  him  over 
words ;  the  idea  is  to  pick  the  weakest  spot  in  his  logic  and 
to  attack  it  with  so  many  convincing  arguments  that  it 
gives  way.  Once  the  weakest  spot  gives  way,  the  entire 
argument  crumbles  down,  for  no  argTiment  is  stronger  than 
its  weakest  link.  Writers  who  reply  point  by  point  to  the 
opponent  are  usually  not  only  wasting  space  but  strengthen- 
ing their  opponent's  argument  by  recalling  his  statements. 
They  would  do  well  to  omit  quibbling  and  countenance 
only  essential  statements.  In  the  same  way,  they  should  i 
avoid  attacking  the  opponent's  character  or  his  manner  of' 
writing ;  such  attacks  arouse  readers  in  his  defence. 

257 


258  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

The  best  method,  in  other  words,  is  to  hunt  out  the  fipvs 
in  the  logic  and  attack  the  weakest  one,  overlooking  every- 
thing else.  To  find  flaws  in  reasoning  we  shall  analyze 
argument  to  note  the  commonest  flaws — the  several  places 
in  which  a  debater  is  likely  to  fail. 

1.  Tlie  Proposition. — Your  opponent  may  be  weak  in 
his  formulation  of  the  proposition;  this  is  the  first  weak- 
ness to  look  for.  Examine  his  argument  to  find  what  prop- 
osition he  is  arguing.  If  he  has  failed  to  work  out  his 
proposition  or  is  arguing  an  unfair  or  undebatable  proposi- 
tion, you  have  found  a  weak  spot.  In  that  case,  a  clear 
statement  of  the  real  proposition  or  problem,  vigorously 
contrasted  with  his  unfair  proposition,  will  destroy  his 
argument. 

2.  Ignoring  the  Question. — Examine  your  opponent's 
argument  to  see  if  he  is  ignoring  the  question  in  any  of  the 
following  ways :  ( 1 )  by  using  the  character,  profession,  or 
conduct  of  some  person  to  prove  the  truth  or  falsity  of  an 
entire  proposition;  (2)  by  appealing  to  prejudice,  anger, 
or  humor,  rather  than  to  reason;  (3)  by  shifting  ground; 
(4)  by  proceeding  to  another  conclusion  than  the  one  at 
issue ;  (5)  by  refuting  a  proposition  that  has  not  been  men- 
tioned; or  (6)  by  treating  contrary  terms  as  contradictory. 
If  he  is  doing  any  of  these,  he  is  ''of!  the  question,''  and 
your  course  is  to  point  out  the  real  issues  and  show  the  use- 
lessness  of  his  by-play. 

3.  Begging  the  Question. — Examine  your  opponent's 
argument  to  see  if  he  is  begging  the  question,  or  assuming 
too  much,  in  any  of  the  following  ways  :  (1)  by  arguing  in 
a  circle  through  assuming  a  premise  and  then  using  it  as 
an  argument ;  (2)  by  assuming  an  issue  imder  cover  of  con- 
fused language  instead  of  proving  it;  (3)  by  assuming  a 


REPLYING   IN  EDITORIALS  259 

general  truth  that  includes  the  question  at  issue;  (4)  by 
using  particular  words  that  assume  belief  in  his  cause ;  or 
(5)  by  defining  a  term  in  such  a  way  as  to  assume  a  point 
at  issue.  If  he  is  guilty  of  any  of  these,  your  course  is  to 
point  out  the  issues  that  he  has  assumed  and  show  that  the 
assumption  is  unwarranted.  In  other  words,  demand 
proof. 

4.  Basic  Facts, — If  your  opponent  has  clearly  analyzed 
his  proposition  and  has  not  strayed  from  the  issues  nor 
assumed  things  that  he  should  prove  (see  1,  2,  and  3),  then 
you  must  examine  the  logic  upon  which  he  bases  his  argu- 
ment. First  examine  each  of  the  basic  facts  which  he  cites 
and  each  of  the  authorities  which  he  quotes  in  the  hope  of 
finding  one  that  is  untrue.  If  you  find  one,  that  will  fur- 
nish a  point  of  attack ;  a  clear  statement  of  the  true  facts 
or  a  quotation  from  a  more  acceptable  authority  will  shake 
his  entire  argument. 

5.  Fallacies. — If  his  facts  are  correct  and  his  authorities 
good,  then  you  must  seek  an  error,  or  fallacy,  in  his  reason^ 
ing.  This  is  a  difficult  task.  It  involves  going  back  to  the 
beginning  and  tracing  his  reasoning,  step  by  step.  The 
easiest  way  is  to  determine  at  the  outset  what  kind  of 
reasoning  he  employs  (see  Chapter  XXYII) — deductive, 
inductive,  or  causal — and  to  apply  the  various  tests  sug- 
gested. Then  your  refutation  will  consist  in  quoting  his 
argument,  applying  the  tests  publicly,  and  showing  up  his 
error  of  reasoning. 

Other  Points  of  Attack. — If  there  are  any  flaws  or  weak 
spots  in  your  opponent's  editorial,  you  will  find  them  by 
applying  one  of  the  five  tests  mentioned  above.  If  this 
careful  examination  uncovers  no  flaws,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  attack  it  in  some  other  way.     One  method  will  be  to 


260  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

restate  the  issues  and  return  the  fire  with  convincing  evi- 
dence and  proof.  You  may  then  win  the  case  by  the  su- 
perior clearness  and  more  convincing  logic.  In  such  a 
case,  it  is  better  to  center  the  refutation  upon  one  issue  than 
to  spread  it  over  several.  There  are  also  several  special 
methods  of  refutation  which  may  be  used  in  certain  cases : 

1.  Reductio  ad  Absurdu7n. — ^^Reducing  the  argument 
to  an  absurdity"  consists  in:  (1)  accepting  your  op- 
ponent's argument  as  entirely  true,  (2)  restating  it  in  all 
seriousness,  and  (3)  then  showing  that,  if  it  is  carried  one 
step  further  or  into  parallel  cases,  the  result  will  not  be  as 
he  expected.  For  instance,  the  argument  ^'the  privilege 
of  drinking  to  excess  is  a  man's  sacred  right"  may  be 
reduced  to  an  absurdity ;  if  we  seriously  admit  that  he  has ' 
this  sacred  right,  we  must  also  admit  that  he  has  the  sacred 
right  of  drinking  carbolic  acid  or  committing  suicide, 
a  conclusion  which  is  absurd. 

2.  Method  of  Residues, — This  special  kind  of  refutation 
is  useful  when  your  opponent  is  arguing  a  certain  cause, 
effect,  or  proposal.  It  consists  in  setting  forth  all  possible 
conclusions  on  the  issue,  including  your  opponent's,  then 
showing  them  all  impossible,  and  lastly  bringing  in  an 
entirely  new  one,  your  own.  For  example,  in  arguing  that 
student  self-government  should  be  established,  your  op- 
ponent may  consider  only  two  possibilities:  student  or 
faculty  control.  You  might  refute  his  argument  by  show- 
ing disadvantages  in  both  of  these  and  then  presenting  a 
new  plan— a  combination  of  the  two.  Such  refutation,  of 
course,  requires  a  new  idea. 

3.  Dilemma: — Forcing  your  opponent  into  a  dilemma 
consists  in  showing  that  his  argument  leads  to  but  two  con- 
clusions—and that  both  are  bad.     An  example  is  the  old 


REPLYING   IN   EDITORIALS  261 

proposal  of  the  kind  of  ^'honor  system"  that  requires 
students  to  promise  to  report  dishonesty  in  school  work.  ^ 
The  advocates  of  such  a  plan  can  be  forced  into  a  dilemma 
whose  two  horns  are :  (1)  ''If  a  student,  after  making  such 
a  promise,  fails  to  report  dishonesty,  he  is  breaking  his 
word" ;  and  (2)  "if  he  keeps  his  word  and  reports,  he  will 
be  condemned  by  his  fellow-students  as  a  tale-bearer." 
Both  are  bad.  The  success  of  such  refutation  depends 
upon  the  certainty  that  there  is  no  possibility  of  more  than 
two  conclusions. 

Attack  Vital  Point — But  it  is  not  always  that  an 
editorial  writer  has  an  opportunity  to  use  these  special 
forms.  The  main  point  in  refutation  is  to  find  the  most 
vulnerable  spot  in  your  opponent's  argument  and  to  refute 
that  with  logical  reasoning.  The  writer  must  not  lose  his 
temper  or  speak  bitterly,  except  in  rare  cases,  for  his 
bitterness  will  turn  readers  against  him.  He  should  not 
make  a  fool  of  his  opponent  or  ridicule  him,  ordinarily, 
but  should  treat  him  seriously,  and  argue.  Sarcasm  is 
often  a  boomerang.  Convincing  proof  and  clear  reasoning 
will  win,  in  many  cases,  against  odds  just  because  the 
opponent  shows  bitterness  or  frivolity.  It  is  always  essen- 
tial, of  course,  to  refer  directly  to  your  opponent  and  his 
particular  statement  so  that  your  reader  may  know  what 
you  are  talking  about.  In  editorials,  however,  the  writer 
must  talk  for  readers  who  have  perhaps  not  read  the  state- 
ment in  question,  as  well  as  for  readers  who  are  following 
the  controversy. 

The  following  editorial,  clipped  from  a  Chicago  news- 
paper, illustrates  a  refutation  by  one  of  the  special 
methods.  After  reading  it,  try  to  determine  which  method 
is  used. 


262 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


Defending  School  Societies 

At  a  hearing  by  the  school  management 
committee  of  the  board  of  education  of 
the  cases  of  three  girls  who  had  refused 
to  promise,  as  pupils  in  a  high  school, 
that  they  would  not  continue  to  be  mem- 
bers of  a  school  secret  society,  the  mothers 
of  two  of  the  girls  set  up  the  plea  that 
their  daughters  could  not  make  such  a 
promise  because  they  had  become  mem- 
bers for  life  of  a  sorority. 

"Once  a  sorority  girl  always  a  sorority 
girl.  If  you  force  the  girls  to  sign  this 
pledge  it  will  only  make  liars  of  them," 
was  the  argument  of  one  of  these  mothers. 

Shall  we  next  be  told  that  son  Tommy 
cannot,  when  he  becomes  a  citizen,  prom- 
ise to  support  the  Constitution  of  his 
country  because,  forsooth,  he  "took  a 
terrible  oath"  at  the  mature  age  of  per- 
haps 14,  to  be  a  life  member  of  the  Boy 
Bandits  of  Halsted  Street  or  some  other 
organization  whose  members  were  pledged 
to  outlawry?  Or  that  because  Mamie, 
Gertie  and  Susie  vowed,  when  they  were 
in  the  eighth  grade,  that  no  one  of  them 
would  ever  marry,  they  never  can  marry? 

Truly,  the  American  youth  is  in  no 
danger  of  losing  its  "rights"  when  parents 
can  be  found  wlio  thus  support  the  school 
fraternities  and  sororities. 


EXERCISES  XXVIII 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  look  for  refutations  in  news- 
paper editorial  columns.  Analyze  the  writer's  method. 
Can  you  suggest  better  ways  of  attacking?  Also  look 
over  the  editorial  arguments  you  clipped  last  week  and 
decide  on  a  method  of  attackinc:  each  of  them. 


REPLYING  IN  EDITORIALS  263 

Tuesday 

1.  Select  an  editorial — perhaps  one  of  those  clipped  last 
week — and  write  a  refutation  in  which  3'ou  attack  one 
weak  spot. 

2.  The  instructor  will  read  in  class  an  editorial  from  a 
current  newspaper  or  other  periodical  on  a  subject  with 
which  3'ou  are  familiar.  Listen  carefulh'  and  search 
for  a  weak  spot,  applying  the  several  tests.  Go  at  the 
task  systematical^  and  do  not  attempt  to  say  anything 
until  you  know  exactly  the  one  spot  to  attack. 

^Vednesday 

1.  Write  a  refutation  of  a  current  argument  that  is  being 
advanced  in  school  circles.  Put  it  in  the  form  of  a 
letter  to  be  published  in  a  local  newspaper. 

2.  Discuss  this  in  class.  Also  study  the  possibility  of 
using  one  of  the  special  methods — dilemma,  reductio  ad 
ahsurdum,  etc. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Advertising 

The  strength  and  value  of  a  newspaper  may  be  judged  to 
a  great  extent  by  the  quantity  and  character  of  its  adver- 
tising. While  a  paper  cannot  exist  without  advertising,  it 
cannot  obtain  adequate,  worth-while  advertising  unless  it  has 
a  worth-while  circulation,  reckoned  not  only  in  total  size  but 
in  the  number  of  responsible,  prosperous  persons  who  read 
it  and  constitute  a  buying  public  for  the  advertisers.  Such 
a  circulation  cannot  be  attained,  of  course,  unless  the  news- 
paper is  editorially  what  the  better  readers  desire.  Adver- 
tising quality  is  therefore  an  index  to  editorial  quality.  News- 
paper strength  is  shown  by  advertising  by  local  merchants, 
since  this  indicates  their  confidence  in  the  paper.  Local 
advertising  indicates  quality,  while  "foreign  advertising" 
(out-of-town  firms)  may  indicate  merely  size  of  circulation. 


264  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Regular,  extensive  advertising  by  the  larger  retail  merchants 
indicates  that  the  paper  goes  into  the  homes  and  is  read  by 
women.  The  extent  of  the  want-ad  section  is  also  usually 
a  sign  of  strength.  The  presence  of  patent  medicine  adver- 
tisements and  the  cheaper  kinds  of  foreign  advertising  is 
usually  a  sign  of  weakness,  for  these  are  purchased  on  the 
basis  of  size  of  circulation  only  and  are  seldom  carried  if 
the  newspaper  can  get  a  better  class  of  advertising.  As  for 
the  amount — the  number  of  pages  in  the  paper  each  day  is 
determined  on  the  amount  of  advertising,  figured  on  the 
basis  of  a  definite  proportion  of  reading  matter  to  ads.  That 
is  why  the  newspaper  is  larger  on  the  days  when  advertise- 
ments are  most  plentiful. 

1.  What  proportion  of  your  newspaper  is  devoted  to  ad- 
vertisements? This  may  be  figured  exactly  in  columns 
or  column-inches. 

2.  How  much  of  the  advertising  is  local  ?  How  many  firms 
are  represented?  What  firms  carry  large  regular  ads. 
evidently  on  contract?     Which  have  regular  positions? 

3.  Analyze  the  foreign  advertising.  How  much  is  patent 
medicine?  What  is  high  or  low  grade?  What  com- 
binations of  foreign  advertisements  with  local  dealers' 
names  are  seen? 

4.  How  large  is  the  want-ad,  or  classified,  section.  What 
kind  of  want-ads  predominate.  How  many  are  from 
out-of-town  advertisers  ? 

5.  Can  you  see  a  relation  between  editorial  quality  and 
advertising  quality  in  this  newspaper? 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  On  a  large  map  of  your  state  study  the  relation  of  your 
city  to  the  others.  List  all  the  cities  in  groups  of 
various  sizes :  between  5,000  and  10,000 ;  between  10,000 
and  25,000 ;  between  25,000  and  50,000;  between  50,000 
and   100,000;  over  100,000.     Locate  each;  note   their 


REPLYING  IN  EDITORIALS  265 

relation  to  railways  and  waterways.  (Data  from  blue 
book  or  census  reports.) 
2.  In  class,  written  memory  test.  What  can  you  learn, 
from  their  locations,  of  the  reasons  for  the  growth  of 
these  cities?  How  does  your  city  rank  among  them? 
What  do  you  know  about  their  histories  ?    Current  news. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
REPORTINQ  DRAMATICS 

^Newspaper  writing  on  theatrical  subjects  is  nowadays 
more  of  the  nature  of  reporting  than  of  criticism.  In 
former  years  many  newspapers  made  a  practice  of  giving 
careful  criticisms  of  theatrical  productions;  now  there  is 
little  criticism,  either  praise  or  censure,  in  newspaper 
write-ups  of  the  theatre.  Dramatic  doings  are  treated  by 
many  newspapers  as  ''news/'  like  any  other  events,  and  are 
written  up  in  a  matter-of-fact  way.  The  purpose  of  such 
reporting  is  not  so  much  to  criticize  productions  as  to  tell 
the  public  what  the  productions  are  and  wdiat  attractions 
each  offers.    Fact,  not  opinion,  is  the  basis  of  the  writing. 

But  for  this  kind  of  theatrical  writing,  as  well  as  for 
criticism,  broad  training  and  knowledge  of  the  drama  are 
required.  To  speak  intelligently  of  the  day's  dramatic 
doings,  one  must  know  much  about  the  productions,  actors, 
playwrights,  managers,  and  leading  theatrical  events  of 
the  year.  He  must  know  much  about  theatrical  events  of 
past  years  and  of  the  history  of  the  drama.  Just  as  this 
background  is  absolutely  necessary  for  reasonable  criticism, 
it  is  highly  essential  for  dramatic  write-ups,  for  it  gives 
a  basis  for  the  comparison  of  today's  productions  with 
those  of  other  days.  Anyone  who  desires  to  become  a 
dramatic  reporter  must  devote  himself  to  study  that  will 
give  him  this  knowledge.  The  laughable  results  of  at- 
tempting to  write  on  dramatic  subjects  in  a  critical  way, 

266 


REPORTING  DRAMATICS  267 

without  knowledge  and  experience,  are  seen  in  many  small 
newspapers.  But  since  our  attempts  are  not  to  be  pub- 
lished, we  may  try  this  work  for  the  valuable  practice  in 
composition  that  it  affords. 

Dramatic  reporting,  as  it  is  done  today,  consists  of 
some  four  kinds  of  writing:  (1)  reporting  performances, 
(2)  criticizing  performances,  (3)  writing  advance  notices, 
and  (4)  preparing  daily  and  weekly  theatrical  news. 
While  the  subject  is  an  extensive  one,  a  few  suggestions 
will  open  up  interesting  practice  writing. 

1.  Reporting  Performances. — The  report  of  a  theatrical 
performance  is  at  bottom  the  same  kind  of  article  as  the 
report  of  any  other  event — a  convention,  a  meeting,  a  lec- 
ture. It  is  a  news  article.  It  aims  to  tell  what  was  seen  at 
the  theatre.  It  is  written  for  persons  who  saw  the  per- 
formance as  well  as  for  those  who  did  not. 

In  writing  such  an  article  the  beginner  is  tempted  to 
recite  the  ''story  of  the  play,"  because  it  is  the  easiest  thing 
to  write.  A  moment's  thought  will  tell  him  that  this  will 
interest  neither  the  person  w^ho  saw  the  play  nor  anyone 
else.  His  work  is  to  write  the  ''story  of  the  performance.'' 
Looking  at  the  task  from  this  point  of  view,  he  finds  his 
material  in  the  actors  and  acting,  the  audience,  the  staging, 
the  "work.''  As  such,  his  story  of  the  performance  of  a 
classic  play  in  his  city  becomes  an  entirely  different  story 
from  the  report  of  a  performance  of  the  same  play  in 
another  city.  It  is  the  same  play  but  a  different  perform- 
ance. He  obtains  the  material  for  such  a  write-up  by 
watching  the  performance  and  by  reference  to  his  program, 
which  ordinarily  gives  the  names  of  actors,  play^vright, 
managers,  and  various  other  facts. 

How  to  make  the  report  of  a  production  interesting  and 


268  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

something  besides  a  ciit-and-dried  rehearsal  of  facts  is  the 
problem.  (1)  One  device  is  a  central  impression  of  the 
performance,  about  which  every  detail  may  be  grouped  and 
of  which  every  detail  is  a  part.  If  the  central  impression 
is  ''skillful  acting,"  for  instance,  all  the  facts  about  actors, 
manager,  and  staging  may  be  related  to  it.  In  the  same 
way,  lighting  effects,  property,  color  scheme,  vocal  en- 
semble, orchestral  effects,  or  any  other  phase  of  the  pro- 
duction, may  be  made  the  central  theme.  A  report  built 
up  in  this  manner  is  not  only  interesting  but  it  leaves  a 
lasting  impression.  (2)  Another  device  is  the  use  of  con- 
crete examples  to  illustrate  each  idea :  a  word  picture  of  a 
part  of  act  two  illustrates  the  lighting  effects ;  James  Har- 
rison as  ''The  Count"  exemplifies  the  costuming;  details  of 
one  setting  illustrate  the  property  effects.  Such  examples 
aid  the  writer  in  developing  pictures  to  reproduce  the  per- 
formance. ( 3 )  A  third  device  consists  in  comparison  with 
other  plays  and  other  performances.  The  more  allusions  to 
other  dramatic  work,  the  richer  and  more  interesting  is  the 
report. 

2.  Criticizing  Performances. — Little  can  be  said  here 
about  the  work  of  the  critic,  for  dramatic  criticism  should 
not  be  attempted  until  the  writer  has  gathered  a  large  fund 
of  knowledge  concerning  the  theatre.  In  the  criticism,  as 
well  as  in  the  plain  report,  the  writer  confines  himself  to 
subjects  that  are  a  part  of  the  performance.  He  criticizes 
the  acting,  staging,  and  all  details  of  production,  but  each 
one  he  tries  to  consider  on  the  basis  of  the  problems  in- 
volved. If  a  part  is  too  heavy  for  the  actor,  he  criticizes 
the  manager  and  not  the  actor ;  if  the  pLay  is  trivial,  he  may 
point  this  out  while  praising  the  actors'  efforts  to  do  some- 
thing with  it.     Each  time,  moreover,  he  tries  to  make  a 


REPORTING  DRAMATICS  269 

definite  criticism ;  it  is  not  sufficient  to  say  that  a  certain 
actor  played  badly,  the  critic  tells  in  what  respects.  The 
best  dramatic  criticism  is  constructive  in  that  it  points  out 
defects  that  might  be  overcome.  In  attempting  to  write 
criticism,  furthermore,  the  writer  must  remember  that 
criticism  includes  praise  as  well  as  censure. 

3.  Writing  Advance  Notices. — Two  kinds  of  advance 
notices  are  seen  in  current  newspapers:  (1)  the  simple 
announcement  of  a  certain  performance,  and  (2)  publicity 
written  to  induce  readers  to  attend  the  performance.  The 
simple  announcement  consists  of  a  recital  of  whatever  facts 
the  writer  can  obtain  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  per- 
formance— leading  actors,  name  of  manager,  novel  effects, 
as  well  as  name  of  play,  playwright,  theatre,  and  date. 
Such  an  article  aims  merely  to  tell  readers  about  the  per- 
formance. The  ' 'publicity"  advance  notice,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  a  more  definite  purpose  and  is  written  more 
cleverly.  Besides  detailing  the  facts  of  the  simple  an- 
nouncement, it  attempts  to  emphasize  attractive  features. 
The  writer  searches  through  his  material  for  the  most  at- 
tractive facts  and  builds  the  article  about  them.  If  he  is 
writing  a  series  of  advance  notices,  he  selects  a  different 
feature  for  each  article.  For  instance,  in  one  he  empha- 
sizes the  name  of  the  leading  lady,  in  another  the  successful 
run  in  another  city,  and  so  on.  In  neither  kind  of  article, 
naturally,  is  it  wise  to  try  to  relate  the  story  of  the  play, 
for  such  a  narrative  would  spoil  the  pleasure  of  anticipa- 
tion. 

4.  Preparing  Theatrical  News. — The  three  classes  of 
dramatic  reporting  mentioned  above  are,  of  course,  a  part 
of  this  task.  The  writer  who  conducts  a  column  of 
^'Theatrical  IRews'^  writes  reviews  of  plays  and  announce- 


270  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

ments  of  plays.  He  aims  to  tell  his  readers  what  has  hap- 
pened in  the  theatrical  world  and  what  is  in  store.  In 
addition,  he  writes  up  whatever  other  information  regard- 
ing local  theatres  and  their  doings  that  he  can  find.  He 
writes  articles  abont  various  performers,  tells  the  stories  of 
the  composition  and  staging  of  productions,  he  notes  the 
changes  in  management  and  companies  of  stock  theatres, 
perhaps  he  interviews  various  stage  people  on  various  sub- 
jects. In  short,  he  follows  the  ^^news''  of  the  theatres,  just 
as  the  society  reporter  follows  the  news  of  society.  To  con- 
duct his  department  successfully,  he  must  talk  with  local 
theatrical  managers  frequently  to  obtain  necessary  infor- 
mation; they  give  him  copies  of  programs  and  notices  in 
advance.  He  reads  the  theatrical  magazines  w^hich  tell  of 
plays  and  players  and  develops  knowledge  of  all  phases  of 
the  profession.  Such  a  department  may  be  made  interest- 
ing or  dull,  depending  upon  the  enterprise  and  cleverness 
of  the  editor  who  prepares  it.  The  pitfalls,  in  the  way  of 
inducements  to  use  the  department  for  advertising  pur- 
poses, are  too  numerous  to  mention  here. 

Dramatic  reporting  is  an  interesting  field  for  young 
writers  who  are  interested  in  the  theatre.  Only  the  sur- 
face of  its  possibilities  has  been  opened  up  here. 

EXERCISES  XXIX 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  study  the '  theatrical  news 
in  a  city  newspaper.  Find  examples  of  each  kind  of 
article.    Criticize  them.    Suggest  improvements. 

Tuesday 

1.  If  possible,  attend  a  performance  at  a  local  theatre  and 
write  a  300-word  report  of  it,  making  no  attempt  to 
pass  judgment.     Use  the  program  for  your  facts. 


REPORTING  DRAMATICS  271 

2.  Optional.  Write  a  criticism  of  the  same  performance 
in  which  you  judge  the  quality  of  the  acting,  staging, 
and  other  features.     Give  reasons. 

3.  Optional.  If  you  cannot  attend  a  play,  write  an  in- 
teresting advance  notice  of  a  play  that  is  to  be  presented 
at  an  early  date.  Get  material  from  programs  and 
newspaper  advertising. 

4.  In  class,  discuss  a  series  of  advance  notices  to  give 
publicity  for  this  play,  or  for  a  home  talent  production, 
with  the  view  to  inducing  readers  to  attend.  Emphasize 
one  phase. 

Wednesday 

l.*From  the  advertising  pages  of  local  newspapers  and 
any  theatre  programs  you  can  obtain,  write  a  series  of 
items  on  the  week's  news  of  the  theatre  in  your  city. 
Be  ready  to  discuss  your  methods  in  class. 

Thursday  N'ewspaper  Study 

Sensationalism 

Many  readers  consider  a  newspaper  sensational  or  con- 
servative because  its  headlines  are  large  or  small.  In  general, 
however,  headlines  are  not  always  an  index  to  policy.  Con- 
servative newspapers  often  use  large  headlines  to  aid  street 
sales;  sensational  newspapers  often  use  a  quiet  make-up  that 
disguises  their  true  character.  Sensationalism,  in  its  essence, 
is  an  attitude  toward  the  news.  Conservative  newspapers 
try  to  evaluate  the  events  of  the  day  in  accordance  with  their 
real  importance;  sensational  newspapers  select  certain  kinds 
of  events  and  over-emphasize  them — '^overplay''  them.  Con- 
servative newspapers  are  published  for  sensible,  thoughtful 
readers;  sensational  newspapers  cater  to  the  thoughtless  who 
seek  merely  amusement  or  emotional  thrill.  Both  newspapers 
may  report  the  same  events  but,  while  the  one  treats  them 
calmly  for  what  they  are  worth,  the  other  uses  them  for  shock 
or  thrill.     That  is  not  all.     In  an  effort  to  get  the  greatest 


272  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

thrill,  sensational  newspapers  often  go  beyond  the  truth,  "color 
up"  or  twist  the  facts,  perhaps  even  ''fake."  The  greatest 
harm  they  do  is  to  give  a  perverted  view  of  life.  It  is  unfor- 
tunately true,  however,  that  the  majority  of  readers  desire 
a  perverted  thrill,  and  sensational  newspapers,  therefore,  al- 
most always  have  the  largest  circulations.  Because  of  this 
fact,  there  is  another  kind  of  newspaper  of  the  most  upright 
kind  that  employs  many  of  the  devices  of  sensation  in  order 
to  interest  the  thoughtless,  emotional  reader,  but  aims,  once 
it  reaches  him,  to  attract  him  away  from  the  thrills  to  some- 
thing better.  The  conservative  newspaper  ignores  this  kind 
of  reader;  the  sensational  newspaper  gets  down  and  grovels 
with  him;  this  other  kind  of  paper  tries  to  attract  him  and 
then  to  raise  his  mental  outlook.  Do  not,  therefore,  judge 
a  newspaper  hastily.  If  it  tells  the  truth,  does  not  pervert 
or  twist  facts,  and  gives  all  the  news,  do  not  call  it  sensa- 
tional, even  if  it  carries  a  few  emotional  stories.  They  may 
be  only  bait. 

1.  Study  the  front  page  of  your  newspaper  to  see  how 
much  of  its  content  is  for  thoughtful  readers. 

2.  Does  it  contain  any  articles  obviously  intended  to  thrill 
or  shock,  built  on  an  emotional  appeal? 

3.  Which  kind  of  reader  is  appealed  to  in  the  stories  that 
receive  the  best  positions? 

4.  Do  you  see  any  evidence  of  twisting  facts,  faking,  color- 
ing, overplaying,  etc.  ?  Perhaps  you  will  need  to  com- 
pare it  with  another  newspaper  of  the  same  city.  Does 
it  contain  all  the  news  of  the  day  or  only  such  events 
as  suit  its  purposes? 

5.  After  this  study,  do  you  conclude  that  it  is  sensational  ? 
Compare  your  conclusion  with  the  size  of  headline  type. 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  Study  your  state's  railroads.  Trace  out  the  main  lines 
and  note  the  cities  on  them,  as  well  as  important  cities 


REPORTING   DRAMATICS  273 

outside  the  state  which  they  connect.  To  this  skeleton 
of  main  lines,  add  the  branch  lines;  note  the  junction 
points.  Note  relative  railroad  facilities  of  various  coun- 
ties and  sections  of  the  state. 
2.  In  class,  written  memory  test.  Discuss  the  way  in  which 
your  city  is  connected  with  other  cities,  making  it  a 
neighbor  to  certain  far-away  cities  and  reducing  its 
interest  in  certain  nearby  cities.  How  is  your  county 
related  to  others  in  railway  facilities?  What  is  the 
significance  of  this  ?    Current  news. 


CHAPTER  XXX 
MOTION  PICTURE  WRITE-UPS 

The  amazing  development  of  the  motion  picture  drama 
has  brought  a  new  department  into  many  newspapers  and 
a  new  field  for  newspaper  writers.  Many  former  theatrical 
columns  are  now  ''movie"  columns ;  many  former  dramatic 
critics  are  now  ''film  critics.''  Tilm  departments  in  news- 
papers have  come  into  being,  partly  because  of  advertising 
revenue  that  accompanies  them,  and  partly  because  editors 
say,  "xYnything  is  news  that  interests  many  readers ;  if  the 
people  pack  the  cinema  theatres,  our  film  columns  will 
interest  them."  This  idea  has  led  to  the  development  of 
special  motion  picture  departments,  even  supplements,  in 
many  newspapers,  and  film  critics  attend  "performances" 
and  witness  "private  film  runs,"  conducting  their  depart- 
ments quite  as  seriously  as  they  formerly  wrote  of  the 
legitimate  drama.  And  with  ticket  prices  for  screen 
dramas  ranging  from  20  cents  to  $2,  is  it  not  a  serious 
business  ? 

The  development  of  the  many-reel  drama  and  the 
"feature  film,"  has  made  possible  a  species  of  criticism 
quite  as  serious  as  that  of  a  three-act  stage  performance. 
In  fact,  the  reporter  writes  his  report  in  much  the  same 
way.  But,  while  the  cinema  play  has  all  the  interesting 
possibilities  of  criticism  seen  in  the  legitimate  field,  it  has 
many  more  of  its  own — the  quality  of  the  photography,  the 
constant  appearance  of  "stars"  in  the  smallest  city,  the 

274 


MOTION  PICTURE  WRITE-UPS  275 

thrill  and  excitement  of  outdoor  acting,  the  introduction  of 
tricks  and  mechanical  effects  impossible  on  the  stage. 

Out  of  the  mass  that  is  being  written  about  the  motion 
picture,  three  kinds  of  articles  may  be  selected  that  afford 
interesting  practice  writing. 

Review  of  Motion  Picture  Dramas Just   as   in   the 

write-ups  of  the  legitimate  drama,  this  new  entertainment 
offers  opjDortunity  for  either  a  report  or  a  criticism.  It 
may  tell  what  the  performance  was  like,  or  whether  it  was 
good  or  bad.  In  either  case,  there  are  the  same  things  to 
write  about  as  in  the  stage  play — actors  and  acting,  setting 
and  directing,  costuming,  subject  matter  of  the  drama.  In 
addition,  the  writer  may  discuss  other  phases  characteristic 
of  the  film  drama  alone — the  construction  of  the  scenario 
and  arrangement  of  scenes,  the  mechanical  effects  and 
clever  illusions,  the  photography,  the  outdoor  scenic  effects. 
All  of  these  are  a  part  of  the  ''work"  of  the  film  drama  and 
are  legitimate  points  for  criticism. 

^'Don't  tell  the  story"  is  quite  as  good  a  maxim  for  film 
critics  as  for  stage  writers ;  such  writing  is  as  annoying  as 
the  man  who  reads  the  ^'leaders"  aloud.  A  fruitful  source 
of  material  lies  in  comparison  of  film  productions  with 
stage  productions  of  the  same  or  similar  dramas.  It  is 
possible,  also,  to  a  great  extent  to  discuss  the  subject  mat- 
ter, since  film  dramas  cover  a  more  diversified  field.  The 
development  of  individual  actors  may  also  be  watched  with 
interest,  since  they  appear  with  greater  frequency  in  suc- 
cessive dramas  produced  by  the  same  company.  The 
director,  in  the  same  way,  plays  a  relatively  larger  part 
than  the  stage  manager  or  producer. 

Advance  Notices. — The  same  aspects  affect  the  type  of 
the  motion-picture  advance  notice,  whether  it  is  for  ''pub- 


276  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

licity''  or  for  news  purposes.  It  is  relatively  easier  to  write 
advance  notices  of  film  dramas  than  of  stage  plays  because 
there  are  more  aspects  to  write  abont;  in  the  same  way, 
however,  the  increased  frequency  of  the  notices  requires 
more  diversified  treatment  to  avoid  monotony.  As  in  all 
publicity  waiting,  it  is  customary  to  inject  interest  into  an 
advance  notice  by  emphasizing  an  attractive  feature  of  the 
drama  that  is  announced.  Most  film  dramas  have  some 
characteristic  all  their  own  about  which  the  advance  notice 
may  be  centered.  Perhaps  it  is  the  '^star/'  the  setting,  the 
problem  discussed  in  the  play,  trick  photography  or  scenic 
effects,  the  play  or  book  that  has  been  dramatized.  This 
special  feature  offers  the  writer  a  starting  point  and  some- 
thing more  interesting  to  write  about  than  the  mere  an- 
nouncement of  the  name  of  the  play,  the  date  and  theatre, 
and  such  other  material.  He  emphasizes  this  feature  at 
the  beginning  and  groups  about  it  all  other  facts  which  he 
has  to  relate.  The  reader  then  receives  the  impression  that 
he  should  see  the  film  because  of  this  special  attraction — 
the  marine  scene,  perhaps.  The  emphasizing  of  the  feature 
in  this  way  is  the  easiest  method  of  making  an  advance 
notice  interesting ;  it  is  far  better  than  to  tell  the  story  of 
the  play. 

Motion  Picture  News.— The  preparation  of  material  for 
a  motion-picture  department  is  easier  than  for  a  theat- 
rical column  because  of  the  greater  number  of  aspects  to 
w^rite  about,  as  pointed  out  above.  Besides  routine  ad- 
vances and  reports  of  productions,  there  are  the  many  other 
activities  of  the  film  drama  producers  to  relate.  Much 
may  be  written  about  the  actors  and  their  work,  since  '^act- 
ing  in  a  studio"  is  a  new  kind  of  stagecraft ;  their  directors 
and  even  the  make-up  of  producing  companies  are  far 


MOTION  PICTURE  WRITE-UPS  277 

better  known  to  readers  than  the  managers  of  the  legitimate 
stage.  Interest  in  outdoor  life  is  appealed  to  by  accounts 
of  the  outdoor  work  of  the  actors;  the  resourcefulness  of 
directors  in  obtaining  settings  and  scenic  effects  is  a  large 
field.  There  is  never-failing  interest  in  the  mechanical 
effects  and  illusions  that  are  created  in  film  dramas.  With 
all  of  these  and  many  other  possibilities,  the  film  reporter 
has  a  constant  supply  of  material.  In  addition,  there  are 
stories  in  the  doings  of  local  theatres  and  managers,  as  well 
as  in  boards  of  censorship  and  municipal  regulation. 

To  obtain  this  material,  the  film  critic  develops  the 
acquaintance  of  local  theatrical  managers  and  arranges  to 
obtain  advance  programs  and  announcements  of  film  pro- 
ductions. Sometimes  he  arranges  to  see  the  picture 
privately  so  that  he  may  write  it  up  in  advance  of  the 
public  performance.  He  gets  from  the  managers  the  gos- 
sip of  the  profession,  looks  over  all  advertising  and  pub- 
licity material  that  the  producing  companies  send  to  the 
managers,  reads  the  motion  picture  magazines,  and,  in 
general,  tries  to  obtain  a  broad  knowledge  of  the  entire 
business.  Thus  equipped,  he  has  a  wealth  of  material  to 
write  for  the  interested  ''fans"  who  read  his  column  every 
day  and  follow  their  hobby  through  his  aid. 

Success  in  writing  film  articles  depends  much  upon 
originality  and  resourcefulness.  Many  film  writers  try 
to  inject  into  their  articles  both  the  enthusiasm  of  the  con- 
stant motion-picture  patron  and  the  excitement  of  the 
drama  itself.  From  the  newsiness  and  novelty  of  the 
material  he  is  describing  he  is  able  to  give  his  writing  an 
interest  and  value  very  much  greater  than  that  of  mere 
publicity. 


278  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

EXERCISES  XXX 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  study  the  motion-picture 
write-ups  in  a  daily  newspaper.  Classify  the  publicity 
kind  and  the  real  reporting.  What  are  the  chief  faults 
and  virtues? 

Tuesdmj 

1.  Write  a  non-critical  report,  about  300  words,  of  a  motion- 
picture  drama  that  you  have  seen,  treating  the  subject 
as  you  would  a  stage  play.  Obtain  names  of  actors, 
etc.,  from  advertisements,  bills,  and  programs. 

2.  ■  In  class,  write  a  criticism  of  a  motion-picture  drama 

you  have   seen  recently,  trying  to  focus  the   criticism 
upon  one  detail  and  to  give  a  single  impression. 

3.  Opiional.  Write  an  advance  notice  of  the  same  drama, 
emphasizing  one  attractive  feature. 

^Yednesday 

1.  From  the  advertisements  in  the  newspapers  during  the 
last  week  prepare  for  Sunday's  paper  a  series  of  short 
articles  on  screen  plays  that  are  to  appear,  or  have  ap- 
peared.    Make  them  newsy. 

2.  Optional.  If  you  can  obtain  a  copy  of  a  motion-picture 
magazine,  write  for  newspaper  use  five  short  articles  on 
actors,  directors,  scenic  effects,  or  other  topics  discussed. 

3.  In  class,  discuss  the  problem,  "What  material  should 
the  newspaper  print  to  satisfy  public  interest  m  moving 
pictures?"     Study  the  problem  ideally  and  practically. 

Thursday  Nev^spaper  Study 

Physical  Make-up 

Whether  a  newspaper  is  pleasing  in  physical  appearance 
depends  upon  a  number  of  things:  kind  of  body  type,  head- 
line type,  special  display,  quality  of  paper,  ink,  presswork, 


MOTION  PICTURE  WRITE-UPS  279 

and  layout  of  articles  or  advertisements.  The  critic  must 
determine  exactly  which  causes  a  pleasing  or  displeasing 
effect.  The  great  development  of  the  printing  art  and  ma- 
chinery in  recent  years  has  greatly  affected  newspaper 
make-up.  If  you  were  to  look  among  the  files  of  former 
years,  you  would  find  much  more  uniformity  in  design  than 
is  seen  now.  The  chief  development  of  late  is  in  the  effort 
toward  constant  variety  in  typography;  make-up  editors  are 
ever}^  day  devising  new  typographical  effects.  This  has  ac- 
companied the  change  in  importance  of  the  front  page; 
originally  looked  upon  as  a  wrapper  likely  to  be  damaged 
m  the  mail,  the  front  page  is  now  the  show  window  of  the 
newspaper.  Other  modern  innovations  are :  greater  use  of 
pictures;  more  variety  in  headline  type;  striking  display 
effects  in  body  tj-pe,  such  as  boxes,  bold  face,  special  indention, 
etc. ;  artistic  special  pages ;  efforts  to  obtain  uniform  tone 
or  sharp  contrast.  On  the  front  page  some  newspapers  strive 
to  obtain  symmetry  and  balance  at  the  heads  of  columns, 
while  others  seek  constant  variety  in  layout.  The  most  ex- 
treme development  of  the  front  page  is  the  design  that 
focuses  all  attention  upon  one  article. 

1.  Compare  the  physical  appearance  of  a  small  country 
weekly  (which  ordinarily  evidences  more  of  the  at- 
tributes of  the  past)  to  that  of  a  city  newspaper. 

2.  Count  the  pictures  in  a  city  newspaper  and  figure  the 
cost  on  the  basis  of  8  cents  a  square  inch  for  line  en- 
gravings and  15  cents  an  inch  for  half-tones. 

3.  What  is  the  general  tone  of  the  city  newspaper — con- 
trast or  uniform  grayness?  What  typographical  ele- 
ments cause  this? 

4.  Study  the  scheme  of  symmetry  or  variety  in  the  head- 
line layout  of  the  front  page. 

5.  Study  a  page  containing  advertisements  and  note  how 
the  make-up  editor  has  fitted  reading  matter  in  space 
left  by  the  ads. 


280  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  Study  your  state's  waterways.  What  are  the  principal 
rivers  and  where  are  they?  Through  what  cities  and 
into  what  bodies  of  water  do  they  flow?  What  and 
where  are  the  principal  lakes?  What  rivers  and  lakes 
are  navigable  and  used  as  traffic  routes? 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test.  Discuss  the  relation 
between  the  growth  of  certain  cities  of  your  state  and 
the  use  of  certain  rivers  for  freight  transportation. 
What  are  the  great  drainage  basins  of  the  state?  The 
principal  watersheds?  In  what  drainage  basin  is  your 
city  ?    Significance  ?    Current  news. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
REPORTING  MUSICAL  EVENTS 

"I  know  nothing  about  music"  is  the  remark  which 
many  young  writers  make,  or  wish  to  make,  when  they 
are  assigned  to  report  a  musical  event,  such  as  a  recital  or 
concert.  However  earnestly  they  may  appreciate  their 
musical  shortcomings,  this  is  not  a  valid  excuse  for  failing 
to  write  such  a  report.  If  it  were,  a  similar  excuse  might 
be  given  for  failure  on  90  per  cent  of  the  assignments 
which  fall  to  the  lot  of  newspaper  workers.  Who  would 
hesitate  to  describe  a  new  building  because  he  did  not 
know  how  to  design  or  to  build,  or  to  report  a  play  because 
he  could  not  act  ?  On  the  contrary,  excellent  reports  of 
musical  events  are  often  written  by  reporters  who  know 
little  of  music.  In  fact,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  many  writers 
on  musical  subjects  do  not  know  a  "major  seventh"  from 
an  "arpeggio."  Xeither  does  the  average  man  in  the 
audience  or  the  average  man  who  reads  the  report.  If  the 
writer  has  too  much  technical  knowledge,  he  may  write 
over  his  readers'  heads;  his  lack  of  technical  knowledge, 
whereas  it  might  handicap  him  in  writing  for  professional 
musicians,  enables  him  to  appreciate  music  from  exactly 
the  same  point  of  view  as  his  non-musically-trained  readers. 
For  that  reason,  the  heading  of  this  exercise  must  have  no 
terrors  for  young  writers. 

Such  writing  is  easily  within  the  reach  of  most  young 
writers,  if  they  consider  the  character  of  report  demanded. 

281 


282  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

They  are  asked  to  ^^report,"  not  to  ^^criticlze'' — to  tell  what 
the  audience  heard,  not  the  technical  excellence  of  the 
performers.  Musical  criticism^  to  be  sure,  is  a  fine  art 
requiring  almost  as  much  knowledge  and  training  on  the 
part  of  the  critic  as  of  the  musician.  Criticism  by  anyone 
else  is  little  less  than  ridiculous.  But  criticism  is  or- 
dinarily reserved  for  the  work  of  professionals,  and  the 
musical  events  which  the  young  writer  has  at  his  mercy  are 
likely  to  be  amateur.  Their  amateur  character  protects 
them  from  public  criticisms. 

With  this  understanding  of  what  is  asked  of  the  amateur 
musical  writer,  we  may  discuss  the  ways  and  means  by 
which  he  may  write  a  readable  report  of  a  local  recital 
or  concert  to  which  he  has  been  assigned.  As  a  reporter, 
rather  than  a  critic,  he  attends  the  concert,  listens  to  it 
with  the  ears  of  the  average  member  of  the  audience,  and 
seeks  facts  that  will  interest  other  persons  who  were  unable 
to  hear  the  concert.  He  is  not  asked  to  write  a  criticism, 
for  few  of  the  audience  or  his  readers — even  in  some  cases 
the  amateur  performers  themselves — are  any  more  able 
than  he  to  appreciate  a  true  criticism. 

Material  for  the  Report — As  his  report  is  to  be  a  fact 
article,  he  must  seek  facts  about  which  to  write.  It  is 
lack  of  facts  that  results  in  maudlin  musical  criticism. 
The  most  salient  material,  of  course,  is  contained  in  the 
program  itself — the  names  of  the  selections,  the  names 
of  the  composers,  the  names  of  the  musicians,  the 
time,  place,  and  occasion.  Beyond  this  point,  he 
must  seek  less  obvious  material.  One  source  of  this 
is  in  the  enthusiasm  and  appreciation  evidenced  by 
the  audience  itself;  he  may  point  out  the  numbers  that 
were  most  pleasing  to  the  audience.     Sometimes  he  may 


REPORTING  MUSICAL  EVENTS  283 

describe  the  nature  or  execution  of  certain  numbers.  If 
the  concert  is  also  a  social  event,  the  make-up  of  the  audi- 
ence is  of  interest.  Other  sources  of  material  include: 
(1)  the  personality  of  the  musicians,  if  they  are  not  local 
persons;  (2)  the  composers  represented  on  the  program, 
for  often  this  is  a  feature  of  the  program;  (3)  the  kind 
of  music,  whether  it  be  popular,  classic,  modern,  eighteenth 
century,  Russian,  or  what;  (4)  the  relation  of  this  con- 
cert to  a  series;  (5)  the  work  of  the  organization  or  per- 
sons w^ho  sponsor  the  musical  event.  The  special  details 
which  may  make  one  concert  different  from  another  are 
varied,  and  these  constitute  the  material  the  writer  seeks. 

Creating  Interest — The  problem  of  making  the  report 
interesting  depends  largely  upon  the  material  which  the 
writer  has  discovered.  The  chief  fault  usually  lies  in  the 
fact  that  the  write-up  becomes  merely  a  list  or  catalogue; 
the  writer  forgets  that  he  is  permitted  to  narrate  and 
describe.  If  he  w^ill  take  the  point  of  view  of  telling  his 
readers  what  he  saw  and  heard,  he  is  likely  to  put  into  the 
article  some  of  the  interest  that  he  would  write  into  a 
report  of  another  kind  of  event.  A  good  beginning  for  the 
article  will  often  be  found  in  one  of  the  special  features 
listed  in  the  paragraph  above,  not  only  a  beginning  but  a 
central  theme  about  which  to  group  all  the  material. 

His  most  dangerous  pitfall  will  be  in  the  words  he 
uses.  Adjectives  are  to  be  avoided,  especially  if  they 
express  half-hearted  praise ;  they  are  useless  when  the 
reader  knows  that  the  writer  can  not  condemn.  In  the 
same  way,  comparatives  and  superlatives  become  flat  and 
uninteresting,  unless  the  writer  really  means  them  and 
emphasizes  them.  Trite  words  and  hackneyed  expressions 
intrude  more  often  in  this  kind  of  writing  than  in  many 


284  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

of  other  kinds ;  rendered,  executed,  performed,  and  similar 
words  should  not  be  overworked.  The  writer  would  do 
better  to  use  simpler  and  more  expressive  synonyms,  such 
as  sing,  play,  etc.,  to  which  he  and  his  readers  are  accus- 
tomed. That  is,  he  should  write  in  his  own  words,  not  in 
borrowed  nomenclature. 

Announcements  of  Musical  Events. — Like  the  advance 
notices  of  plays  and  other  public  events,  the  announcement 
of  musical  affairs,  to  be  interesting  and  attractive,  requires 
the  emphasizing  of  a  special  feature.  There  is  always 
some  attraction,  some  reason  for  the  event,  which  is  more 
interesting  than  the  simple  announcement  itself.  This  is 
the  point  which  the  writer  uses  as  a  beginning  and  as  a 
central  theme  for  his  announcement.  It  may  be  one  of 
the  special  features  listed  above  or  some  other ;  it  may  be 
pointed  out  by  the  sponsors  of  the  concert,  or  they  may  not 
realize  its  attractiveness.  The  writer,  at  any  rate,  must 
seek  it,  if  his  article  is  to  be  anything  more  than  a 
gratuitous  advertisement. 

Season  Article. — A  department  of  gossip  and  news  notes 
of  musical  doings  is  easy  to  prepare  in  any  city  that  has  the 
usual  number  of  musicians  and  musical  interests.  There 
are  not  the  possibilities  in  it  that  there  are  in  a  theatrical 
or  film  column,  because  it  must  be  chiefly  concerned  with 
scheduled  events.  Good  exercise  in  writing  may  be  ob- 
tained through  the  preparation  of  an  article  on  the  musical 
season,  an  article  in  which  all  the  musical  events  in  pros- 
pect are  summed  up  and  described  in  interesting  fashion. 
The  material  may  be  obtained  from  the  various  musical 
interests  in  the  city,  for  their  plans  are  usually  made  far 
in  advance.  If  it  is  carefully  outlined  with  a  view  to 
emphasizing  the  most  important  or  most  interesting  events 


REPORTING  MUSICAL  EVENTS  285 

and  if  it  is  filled  with  names  and  facts,  the  article  may  be 
made  decidedly  readable. 

EXERCISES  XXXI 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  find  a  newspaper  account  of 
a  musical  event  and  see  what  it  is  made  of.  Does  it 
comment?  Find  the  particular  words  that  comment. 
Would  it  be  as  interesting  without  the  comment? 

Tuesday 

1.  Attend  one  of  the  recitals  or  concerts  of  the  week  and 
write  a  readable  400-word  report  of  it.  Embody  the 
program  in  it  but  add  more  than  the  mere  program. 
Do  not  comment  or  criticize. 

2.  In  class,  write  a  300-word  advance  notice  of  the  same 
event,  emphasizing  one  interesting  feature  of  the  event. 

Wednesday 

1.  If  you  can  obtain  a  forecast  of  the  musical  events  of  a 
few  weeks  or  months  in  advance,  write  a  story  on  the 
coming  musical  season  in  the  city  or  the  school. 

2.  Optional.  Write  an  interesting  summary  of  the  past 
season  from  accounts  found  in  newspaper  files. 

3.  Optional.  Write  such  an  article  for  the  week  on  the 
basis  of  musical  events  announced  in  last  Sunday's 
paper. 

4.  In  class,  make  a  study  of  the  diction,  typographical  style, 
and  sentence  structure  in  your  articles. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Typography 

Further  study  of  newspaper  physical  make-up  leads  us  into 
typography,  for  a  printed  page  is  nothing  but  a  grouping 


286  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

of  a  few  thousand  pieces  of  metal.  The  first  step  is  to  study 
the  headlines:  (1)  How  many  different  kinds  are  there?  (2) 
How  many  varieties  of  type  in  them?  (3)  How  many  decks 
or  layers  in  each  form?  (4)  Which  are  set  all-capital-letters 
and  which  in  capitals-and-small-letters ?  (5)  Does  the  type 
blend  with  the  body  type  or  contrast  strongly?  (6)  Are  all 
headlines  of  column  width  or  are  some  wider?  Next,  in  the 
study  of  body  type,  one  should  note:  (1)  whether  the  same 
kind  and  size  of  body  type  is  used  throughout;  (2)  what 
special  spacing  or  indention  is  used  for  emphasis;  (3)  how 
much  bold-face,  or  blacker  type,  is  used.  Other  typographical 
features  to  be  noted  are:  (1)  the  subheads  used  in  the  bodies 
of  individual  stories;  (2)  character  of  signatures  of  writers; 
(3)  kind  of  line  placed  at  bottom  of  article  to  be  continued 
on  later  page;  (4)  kinds  of  datelines  on  stories;  (5)  use  of 
boxes;  (6)  character  and  content  of  page  heading;  (7)  the 
^^ears"  on  either  side  of  newspaper  name.  On  inside  pages^ 
the  student  will  find  special  typographical  devices  for  various 
departments  and  sometimes  a  distinctive  arrangement  of  the 
editorial  page.  The  advertisements  should  also  be  studied; 
in  these  the  size  and  blackness  of  type  is  often  limited.  Cer- 
tain ads,  it  will  be  noted,  are  set  in  type  not  seen  elsewhere 
in  the  paper  and  are  unusually  artistic  in  make-up;  these 
are  likely  to  be  electrotypes  supplied  by  the  advertiser. 

1.  Study  the  typography  of  your  newspaper  on  the  basis 
of  the  above  discussion,  hunting  out  all  the  things  men- 
tioned. (Some  technical  terms  of  typography  will  be 
found  in  Part  TI,  Chapter  II.) 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  Study  your  state's  industries.  List  the  principal  indus- 
tries in  order  of  relative  importance.  What  industries 
have  good  transportation  facilities  and  what  have  not? 
(See  blue  book  or  census  report.) 


REPORTING  MUSICAL  EVENTS  287 

In  class,  written  memory  test.  Why  does  each  of  these 
industries  exist  in  the  state?  In  its  chief  industries, 
how  does  your  state  rank  with  others?  Does  it  lead 
in  any  ?  What  part  does  your  city  play  in  any  of  them  ? 
Current  news. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 
REVIEWING  A  BOOK 

There  are  two  ways  of  reviewing  a  book  for  newspaper 
or  magazine  purposes.  One  consists  in  telling  the  public 
what  the  book  is  like  and  what  is  in  it,  as  gleaned  from 
a  hasty  scanning;  the  other  consists  in  summarizing  the 
book's  content  and  method,  after  a  careful  reading. 
Xeither  necessarily  involves  a  criticism  of  the  book, 
although  the  writer  often  passes  judgment  on  the  book  as 
a  whole,  or  on  parts  of  it,  if  he  is  conversant  with  the  sub- 
ject matter.  A  third  kind  of  review,  a  thorough  criticism 
or  critical  essay,  requires  special  knowledge  and  training 
and  is  beyond  our  present  effort. 

The  easier  kind  of  book  review^ — which  we  shall  under- 
take first — consists  in  giving  certain  definite  information 
about  the  new  book.  Whereas  it  is  well  to  read  the  book 
for  this  article,  the  character  of  the  material  to  be  pre- 
sented in  this  kind  of  review  does  not  necessitate  more  than 
a  hasty  scanning  of  the  book,  since  the  information  to  be 
presented  is  easily  accessible.  This  material  includes  the 
name  and  identity  of  the  author,  the  general  subject  and 
content  of  the  book,  the  author's  aim  or  purpose  in  writing 
it,  the  physical  appearance  of  the  book,  and  the  name  of 
the  publisher.  Having  been  given  this  information  about 
the  new  book,  the  reader  knows  whether  he  wishes  to  read 
the  book  itself. 

288 


REVIEWING  A  BOOK 

Sources  of  Material — The  information  listed  above  is 
easy  to  obtain  without  reading  the  book,  because  it  is 
always  presented  in  a  conspicuous  manner.  The  author's 
name  and  identity  may  be  obtained  from  the  title  page 
and  preface ;  this  may  often  be  supplemented  by  reference 
to  ''Who's  Who"  for  facts  about  the  author.  Much  ma- 
terial about  the  author  is  often  printed  on  the  book's 
wrapper.  The  general  subject  matter  is  found  in  the  title 
and  subtitle  on  the  title  page.  The  content  and  manner 
of  development  may  be  elaborated  from  the  list  of  chapter 
headings  in  the  ''Table  of  Contents."  Illustrations,  ap- 
pendices and  similar  material  in  the  back  of  the  book 
should  not  be  overlooked.  To  learn  the  author's  aim  or 
purpose  in  writing  the  book,  one  must  read  the  preface; 
this,  as  the  author's  explanation  of  his  work,  often  con- 
tains the  most  tangible  summary.  The  name  of  the  pub- 
lisher is  usually  included  so  that  readers  may  know  where 
to  obtain  the  book;  the  price,  as  well,  is  often  given. 

More  Detailed  Description. — Further  details  may  be 
obtained  through  a  hasty  scanning  of  the  various  chapters. 
The  outstanding  features  of  the  book — exercises,  sum- 
maries, tables,  footnotes,  etc. — are,  of  course,  immediately 
evident.  The  reading  of  one  chapter  will  often  give  one 
a  fair  idea  of  the  writer's  style,  method  of  treatment,  and 
other  noteworthy  features  of  his  work.  To  illustrate  vari- 
ous facts  about  the  book,  it  is  sometimes  well  to  quote 
from  the  preface  or  from  certain  outstanding  parts  of  the 
various  chapters.  A  quotation  from  the  preface  will  often 
sum  up  the  book  in  better  fashion  than  the  reviewer  can 
phrase  his  ideas.  The  more  illustrations  or  examples  that 
the  reviewer  can  obtain,  the  clearer  will  be  his  explanation 
of  ivhat  the  hooJc  is  avd  ivhat  it  contains — and  that  is  the 


290  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

purpose  of  such  a  review.  When  the  writer  is  familiar 
with  the  type  of  book  under  discussion  and  with  the  gen- 
eral field,  he  may  classify  the  hook  with  relation  to  other 
books  of  the  same  kind. 

Comment  and  Criticism. — Whether  the  reviewer  shall 
criticize  the  book  depends  upon  circumstances.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  no  reviewer  should  attempt  to  criticize  or  com- 
ment unless  he  has  a  broad  knowledge  of  the  subject  matter 
and  of  the  field  of  the  book.  Severe  criticism  is  likely  to 
start  a  controversy  that  will  give  much  publicity  to  author 
and  book.  Unless  the  writer  is  willing  to  undertake  a  con- 
troversy and  feels  capable  of  defending  his  j^osition,  it  is 
better  not  to  criticize.  If  criticism  is  undertaken,  it  should 
be  confined  to  reasonable  limits.  One  subject  that  is  per- 
missible of  comment  is  the  author's  qualification  to  write 
such  a  book.  Another  lies  in  a  comparison  of  the  book 
under  discussion  with  other  books  of  the  same  kind.  In 
judging  the  book,  the  writer  should  judge  it  as  a  whole; 
it  is  decidedly  unfair  to  attack  parts  of  it  without  present- 
ing a  clear  idea  of  their  relation  to  the  entire  work. 
Almost  any  book  has  weak  spots  which  the  reviewer  may 
ridicule,  but  he  is  unfair  to  the  writer,  if  he  contents  him- 
self with  ridiculing  one  part  without  discussing  the  good 
and  bad  aspects  of  the  rest  of  the  book. 

If  the  reviewer  does  not  wish  to  criticize  the  book  in 
order  to  avoid  a  controversy  over  his  criticism,  he  will 
find  it  useless,  as  well,  to  dole  out  meaningless  commenda- 
tion. In  a  straightforward  review  that  aims  to  tell  what 
is  in  the  hook,  praise  is  unnecessary;  facts  about  the  book, 
if  fairly  presented,  will  give  a  sufficiently  clear  impression 
of  the  book. 

One  kind  of  comment,  however,  that  is  desirable  in  such 


REVIEWING  A  BOOK  291 

a  book  review  is  a  cenitral  impression  concerning  its  char- 
acter. Unless  the  writer  has  digested  the  book  sufficiently 
to  obtain  a  definite  impression  of  it,  the  facts  which  he 
presents  will  be  disconnected  and  meaningless.  They  must 
be  bound  together  into  a  logical  explanation.  The  central 
impression  which  will  often  be  developed  will  usually  be 
related  in  one  way  or  another  with  the  aim  or  purpose  of 
the  book  and  will  result  from  a  careful  reading  of  the 
preface — the  author's  own  explanation  of  his  work. 


EXERCISES  XXXII 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  clip  some  book  reviews  from 
newspapers  or  weekly  magazines  and  prepare  for  an  oral 
criticism  of  them.  Are  literary  folk  right  in  con- 
demning this  kind  of  review? 

Tuesday 

1.  Plan  and  outline  a  long  review  of  one  of  your  textbooks. 
Include  quotations  from  preface  and  elsewhere  to  illus- 
trate main  points.  Be  sure  to  present  all  essential  facts 
in  your  outline. 

2.  In  class,  the  teacher  will  give  you  a  textbook  that  is 
new  to  you  and  allow  you  half  an  hour  to  study  its 
preface  and  contents.  During  the  rest  of  the  hour,  you 
will  write  a  short  review  of  it. 

W  ednesday 

1.  Write  a  500-word  review  of  a  book  on  sociology,  politics, 
finance,  ethics,  philosophy,  or  other  thoughtful  subject 
that  you. have  read.  Try  to  develop  a  central  impression 
in  your  review. 

2.  In  class,  discuss  ways  of  rewriting  this  review  in  order 
to  pass  judgment  on  the  book  in  a  logical  way. 


292  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

The  Linotype  Machine 

Little  newspaper  type  matter  is  now  set  by  hand,  but  the 
type  is  set,  or  rather  made  and  set,  on  a  linotype  machine. 
The  linotype,  which  has  been  in  nse  since  about  1886,  does 
not  use  individual  type-letters,  like  hand-set  type,  but  makes 
line-slugs,  or  separate  pieces  of  metal,  one  for  each  line,  which 
bear  on  one  edge  the  type  characters  desired — hence  its  name, 
abbreviating  line-of-type.  You  will  note  in  the  newspaper 
page  that  any  variation  of  inking  or  pressure  affects  an  entire 
line,  or  one  end  of  a  line,  or  one  edge — not  the  individual 
letters.  The  machine  is  operated  by  a  keyboard,  like  a  type- 
writer, and  as  the  keys  are  struck,  the  machine  places  in  a 
row  a  series  of  thin  pieces  of  brass,  known  as  "matrices," 
each  of  which  bears  on  its  edge  the  mold  of  a  type-letter. 
AVhen  the  "mats"  for  one  line  are  assembled,  the  machine 
moves  them  into  position  in  front  of  a  small  casting  box, 
so  that  the  letter  molds  form  the  bottom,  and  then  forces 
molten  metal  into  the  casting  box  from  a  melting  pot.  The 
bar  thus  cast  is  a  line-slug.  All  of  this  is  done  automatically ; 
the  operator  simply  strikes  the  keys  to  bring  down  the  mats 
from  the  magazine.  When  he  has  filled  a  line,  he  presses 
a  lever,  and  the  machine  does  the  rest — casting  the  slug, 
placing  it  in  a  galley,  and  redistributing  the  mats  in  the 
magazine — all  while  he  sets  another  line.  The  machine  is 
the  quickest  and  cheapest  means  of  setting  type-matter;  its 
line-slugs  are  easy  to  handle  in  make-up;  but  a  proof  correc- 
tion requires  the  resetting  of  an  entire  line,  for  no  single 
part  may  be  changed.  These  machines,  of  which  there  are 
several  makes,  cost  from  $2,500  to  $4,500  each,  and  single 
newspapers  often  own  50  or  more  of  them.  They  should  not 
be  confused  with  the  monotype  machine,  which  makes  and 
sets  individual  types. 


REVIEWING  A  BOOK  293 

1.  Study  the  linotype  machine  from  material  and  pictures 
supplied  by  the  teacher.  Go  to  a  local  newspaper  office 
and  watch  some  of  the  processes  of  setting  type  and 
making  up  pages,  as  well  as  the  operation  of  the  linotype. 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  Study  the  traffic  routes  of  the  United  States  on  a  large 
railroad  map.  Disregarding  branch  lines  and  subsidiary 
railroads,  trace  out  the  principal  main-line  railways. 
Notice  the  resulting  ^^nearness"  and  common  interest 
of  various  sections  of  the  country. 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test.  Trace  the  routes  of  ship- 
ments from  your  city  to  various  other  points  in  the 
country.  Note  how  j^our  city  is  thus  closely  connected 
with  certain  distant  cities  and  widely  separated  from 
certain  cities  in  nearby  states.     Current  news. 


CHAPTEE  XXXIIT 
SUMMARIZING  BOOKS 

l^ewspapers  review  new  books  so  that  busy  readers  may 
know  w4iat  is  in  them  and  whether  to  spend  time  reading 
them.  Newspapers  summarize  books,  on  the  other  hand, 
to  present  their  message  in  brief  form  and  save  bnsy 
readers  the  time  required  to  read  them.  The  books  chosen 
for  this  treatment  are  naturally  important  books  of  a 
thoughtful  character  which  the  busy  reader  should  know 
but  is  not  likely  to  read.  By  presenting  their  message  in 
brief  form,  the  newspaper  carries  it  to  a  larger  audience 
than  it  would  otherwise  reach.  It  opens  up  to  readers  who 
avoid  serious  books  the  valuable  ideas  they  contain. 

Pamphlets,  reports,  periodicals  of  limited  circulation, 
and  other  thoughtful  material  are  also  laid  before  the  read- 
ing public  in  the  same  way.  Masses  of  printed  matter,  full 
of  valuable  information,  are  of  such  limited  circulation 
that  they  do  not  reach  the  average  reader  or  are  not  read 
if  they  do.  The  newspaper's  brief  summary  presents  the 
thought  in  digested  form ;  it  extracts  the  meat  and  lays  it 
before  the  reader  who  has  not  time  to  crack  the  shell. 

Method. — To  prepare  a  predigested  summary  of  a  book 
it  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  read  the  entire  book  carefully. 
The  hasty  scanning  given  in  our  first  review  is  not  su:ffi- 
cient.  The  writer  must  extract  its  spirit  and  content  as 
well  as  its  message.  Xot  until  he  has  read  it  all  is  he  ready 
to  undertake  to  digest  it. 

294 


SUMMARIZING  BOOKS  295 

The  next  step  ic  to  prepare  a  careful  outline  of  the 
book's  contents — an  outline  that  presents  the  author's  ideas 
and  the  various  parts  of  these  ideas  in  skeleton  form,  all 
properly  related  and  developed.  The  table  of  contents  or 
list  of  chapter  headings  is  a  safe  guide  in  the  briefing  of 
the  book's  content.  Writing  is  not,  however,  the  next  step, 
as  one  might  suppose.  The  reviewer  must  next  select  the 
climax  or  chief  point  of  interest  in  the  book  as  his  starting 
point.  Seldom  is  the  climax  on  page  one.  It  is  usually 
well  along  toward  the  end  of  the  book ;  the  author  usually 
draws  his  conclusions  in  the  last  chapters.  This  climax, 
when  it  is  found,  constitutes  the  author's  message  and  the 
revieAver's  starting  point.  It  is  likely  that  the  author's 
method  was  to  build  up  to  his  conclusions  and  lead  his 
readers  up  to  the  climax  or  summary.  The  reviewer's 
method  is  exactly  the  reverse;  he  begins  with  the  climax 
and  then  explains  it  by  means  of  the  same  steps  and  sub- 
ordinate ideas  that  the  author  used  in  building  up  to  it. 
The  reviewer  places  the  climax  first  in  his  outline  and 
arranges  the  other  points  after  it.  This  involves  a  com- 
plete rearrangement  of  the  outline  that  was  first  prepared. 
When  it  is  completed,  the  reviewer  is  ready  to  write. 

Composition. — With  a  careful  outline  the  writing  of  the 
digest  is  a  mere  problem  of  exposition.  The  aim  is  to 
present  the  ideas  clearly  and  forcefully  and  in  the  proper 
logical  relation.  To  make  the  digest  interesting  and  easy 
to  read,  it  is  well  to  introduce  some  of  the  devices  used  to 
brighten  up  expository  editorials  (Chapter  XXVI).  That 
is,  a  concrete  illustration  of  an  idea  is  much  more  interest- 
ing and  forceful  than  a  general  statement;  if  the  author 
presents  his  ideas  in  both  ways,  as  is  likely,  select  the 
illustration.      In    the    same    way;,    comparison,    contrast. 


296  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

analogy,  and  other  devices  will  increase  the  interest ;  for 
the  digest  must  be  interesting,  or  it  will  fail  in  its  purpose 
of  instructing  casual  readers.  The  value  of  quotation 
marks  must  not  be  overlooked;  they  always  increase  the 
reader's  interest  and  the  author  has  probably  stated  many 
of  his  conclusions  much  more  forcefully  than  you  can  state 
them.  Therefore  quote  some  of  the  interesting  statements 
found  in  the  book  at  the  points  in  the  outline  where  they 
apply.  It  is  entirely  possible  to  develop  these  illustrations 
and  quotations  at  the  proper  places  as  you  write,  but  it  is 
much  better  to  select  them  beforehand.  As  you  prepare 
your  outline,  jot  upon  it  the  various  illustrations  and  quo- 
tations in  the  proper  places,  and  plan  out  your  exposition 
before  you  write  the  first  word. 

Emphasis. — Since  it  is  the  book's  significance  or  message 
that  you  wish  to  impress  upon  the  reader,  it  is  necessary 
to  plan  carefully  the  best  manner  of  developing  the  proper 
emphasis.  The  real  message  or  significance,  as  pointed  out 
above,  will  probably  be  found  near  the  end  of  the  book. 
It  may,  however,  be  found  in  the  preface  or  introduction. 
Once  it  is  discovered,  it  should  be  formulated  in  the  most 
attractive  manner.  If  possible,  it  should  not  be  presented 
as  an  abstract,  disconnected  idea.  It  should  be  tied  up  to 
some  interest  that  you  know  the  reader  already  has  in  his 
mind.  The  interest  may  depend  upon  the  timeliness  of 
the  idea,  its  relation  to  current  events,  problems,  or  dis- 
cussions ;  it  may  simply  be  related  to  some  hobby  that  you 
know  many  readers  like  to  ride.  This  relation  should  form 
the  starting  point  of  your  digest,  for  you  can  depend  upon 
it  to  attract  your  reader  at  once.  Thus  attracted,  he  will 
read  further  and  give  you  an  opportunity  to  tell  him  the 
book's    message.      But,    unless    the   method    is    carefully 


SUMMARIZING   BOOKS  297 

planned  out,  the  starting  point  may  appear  artificial.  It 
must  be  a  vital  part  of  the  book's  message  and  all  sub- 
ordinate ideas  must  be  coherently  related  to  it.  Usually 
the  most  effective  way  to  create  such  emphasis  is  to  have  a 
clear  impression  of  the  book's  message  before  you  begin  to 
write.  Then  set  out  to  deliver  this  message  forcefully  and 
to  give  the  reader  the  same  impression  that  you  have  re- 
ceived from  the  book.  Your  digest  will  then  have  point. 
Comment — Whether  the  reviewer  should  pass  judgment 
on  a  book  that  he  is  summarizing  depends  upon  circum- 
stances. Ordinarily  he  is  favorably  impressed  with  the 
book,  or  he  would  not  digest  it.  He  may,  on  tiie  other 
hand,  be  digesting  it  for  the  purpose  of  refuting  its  state- 
ments and  giving  his  own  ideas  of  the  case.  Whatever  his 
purpose  may  be,  he  should  carefully  formulate  his  judg- 
ment before  he  begins  to  write  and  make  his  comment  an 
inseparable  part  of  his  digest.  It  is  useless  to  tack  the 
comment  on  the  end;  it  must  be  woven  into  the  digest's 
fabric.  The  customary  method,  however,  in  digesting  a 
book  is  to  sum  up  its  message  and  content  without  passing 
judgment  on  it.  The  reader  is  then  given  an  opportunity 
to  judge  its  ideas  and  conclusions  for  himself. 

EXERCISES  XXXIII 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  go  to  the  library  and  note 
the  weekly  magazines  that  contain  thoughtful  digests 
of  books.     Xote  the  range  of  subjects  in  any  one  maga- 
zine.    Select  one  article  for  criticism  in  class. 
Tuesday 

1.  Plan  and  outline  a  1,000-word  digest  of  one  of  your 
most  interesting  textbooks  with  the  aim  of  presenting 
its  message  and  content  to  someone  else. 


298  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

2.  In  class,  the  teacher  will  give  you  copies  of  a  thoughtful 
pamphlet  or  report  recently  received  or  to  be  found 
in  the  public  library,  and  you  will  digest  it  as  well  as 
you  can  in  the  class  hour.  Perhaps  it  will  be  a  govern- 
ment report  or  a  research  bulletin  from  a  university. 

Wednesday 

1.  Write  an  explanatory  editorial  presenting  the  statistics 
that  are  set  forth  in  one  section  of  one  of  the  special 
volumes  of  the  federal  census  report.  Select  material 
related  to  the  life  and  interests  of  your  city. 

2.  In  class,  outline  orally  a  book  digest  in  which  you  take 
exception  to  the  author's  conclusion  and  present  your 
own  views  in  contrast  with  his.  Select  a  thoughtful 
iDook  that  you  have  read  recently,  or  a  magazine  fact 
article. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Stereotyping 

The  setting  up  of  a  page  of  type  matter  and  engravings 
("cuts")  is  so  expensive  that  several  comparatively  cheap 
processes  have  been  invented  to  make  metal  duplicates  of  a 
type  page,  once  it  is  completed.  The  process  most  commonly 
used  by  newspapers  is  stereotyping.  In  brief,  the  process 
consists  in:  (1)  placing  a  wet  papier-mache  sheet,  or  mat, 
over  the  completed  type  page;  (2)  baking  it  hard  and  dry 
by  placing  the  page  and  mat  in  a  heated  press;  (3)  placing 
the  baked  mat,  which  now  contains  the  impression  of  all 
letters  and  pictures,  in  a  mold  so  that  it  forms  the  bottom; 
and  (4)  pouring  molten  metal  on  it  to  cast  a  plate.  The 
finished  plate  is  an  exact  reproduction  of  the  type  form,  and 
many  plates  may  be  cast  from  the  same  mat.  Newspapers 
use  stereotyping  in  two  ways;  (1)  to  make  the  curved  semi- 
cylindrical  plates  of  pages  to  be  bolted  on  the  cylindrical 
rolls  of  the  modern  high-speed  rotary  printing  presses;   (2) 


SUMMARIZING   BOOKS  299 

to  make  the  mats  or  plates  whereby  printed  matter  may  be 
syndicated  cheaply  through  one  setting  of  the  type.  Most 
syndicate  pictures  are  sent  to  newspapers  in  the  form  of 
stereotype  mats.  Aside  from  a  slight  blurring  of  the  type, 
the  chief  evidence  of  stereotyping  is  seen  in  the  pictures, 
which  must  be  coarse-grained  (coarse-screened)  for  stereotyp- 
ing. Another  process  of  reproducing  type  matter  is  electro- 
typing.  In  this,  a  wax  impression  is  taken  of  the  type,  and 
a  copper  tilm  is  deposited  on  the  wax  by  electrolysis.  The 
copper  film  is  then  stripped  off  and  backed  up  with  molten 
metal  to  form  a  plate.  This  makes  finer  printing  and  is 
more  costly.  It  is  seen  in  newspapers  mainly  in  electrotype 
advertisements  ("electros")  supplied  by  large  advertisers.  In 
these  ads  the  local  dealer's  name  is  often  set  in  hand-set  type. 

1.  Does  your  newspaper  use  "boiler  plate" — syndicated 
stereotyped  material.  It  is  slightly  different  in  typog- 
raphy and  does  not  print  as  clearly  as  type. 

2.  Xote  the  ads  of  national  advertisers  that  appear  to  be 
"electros."  Xotice  how  local  dealer's  name  is  mor- 
tised in. 

3.  Go  to  the  newspaper  office  and  examine  stereotype  and 
electrotype  plates.  If  there  is  stereotype  equipment, 
watch  the  process. 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  How  many  of  the  capitals  of  the  various  states  of  the 
Union  can  you  name?  How  many  can  you  find  on  the 
map  without  searching?  Make  an  alphabetical  list  of 
the  states  and  their  capitals  and  learn  them. 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test.  From  your  study  of 
traffic  routes  notice  how  various  state  capitals  are  closely 
related  in  interest  while  others  are  widely  separated. 
Current  news. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 
PUBLICITY  MATERIAL 

"Publicity  material"  is  a  term  often  applied  to  a  type  of 
newspaper  writing  that  lias  a  propagandist  or  advertising 
purpose.  A  more  homely  name  for  it,  which  has  grown 
out  of  the  activities  of  certain  over-energetic  publicity  men, 
is  "press  agent  matter."  So  active  are  some  types  of  press 
agents  that  newspaper  men  have  developed  a  great  aversion 
to  certain  kinds  of  publicity  matter.  But  many  kinds  of 
publicity  articles  have  a  legitimate  purpose,  and  a  young 
writer  is  fortunate  if  he  knows  how  to  write  them  so  as  to 
accomplish  the  desired  purpose  in  spite  of  newspaper  aver- 
sion to  "press  agents,"  Many  other  writers  fail  simply 
because  they  disregard,  or  do  not  know,  the  newspaper 
man's  point  of  view. 

The  newspaper  man's  attitude  is  based  upon  the  fact 
that  all  legitimate  newspapers  try  to  apply  one  of  two  tests 
to  everything  that  they  print:  (1)  Is  it  news?  (2)  If 
not,  is  it  material  of  exceptional  interest  to  a  large  num- 
ber of  readers;  that  is,  feature  material?  Any  material 
that  is  not  one  or  the  other — and  is  obviously  an  advertise- 
ment or  a  "puff" — has  no  place  in  the  newspaper.  On  the 
other  hand,  newspapers  are  glad  to  print  publicity 
articles  that  have  a  worthy  purpose,  if  they  are  written  so 
as  to  meet  the  requirements.  Skillful  publicity  writers, 
therefore,  devise  ways  of  presenting  their  material  either 
as  news  or  as  interesting  feature  articles.     And,  needless 

300 


PUBLICITY  MATERIAL  301 

to  say,  every  idea  or  event  for  which  publicity  is  desired 
has  either  or  both  possibilities  in  it,  if  the  writer  is  clever 
enough  to  find  them  and  honestly  tries  to  meet  the  news- 
paper's requirements. 

Suppose,  for  example,  that  you  are  asked  to  prepare 
publicity  matter  for  a  home-talent  theatrical  performance 
to  be  given  in  your  city.  The  sponsors  of  the  affair  desire 
to  have  a  number  of  articles  in  the  newspapers  to  arouse 
public  interest  in  it.  Your  first  article,  the  announcement 
that  such  a  play  is  to  be  given,  will  be  gladly  printed  be- 
cause it  is  news.  Perhaps  there  is  opportunity  for  one 
more  news  article,  just  before  the  performance.  But  what 
can  you  do  to  prepare  other  interesting  articles  between  the 
dates  of  these  two  news  articles  ? 

That  is  the  publicity  writer's  problem.  The  solution 
consists  in  finding  enough  interesting  things  in  the  home- 
talent  performance  to  form  the  basis  of  a  series  of  feature 
articles  so  interesting  in  themselves  that  the  newspapers 
will  be  glad  to  print  them.  All  that  you,  as  publicity 
writer,  desire  each  article  to  tell  the  public  is  the  fact  that 
the  performance  will  be  given  on  such-and-such  a  date  and 
that  it  is  worth  seeing.  To  carry  this  idea,  you  must  write 
articles  so^interesting;  that  the  announcement  seems  en- 
tirely subordinate.  The  method  is  somewhat  similar  to 
that  of  the  theatrical  press  agent  who  writes  many  interest- 
ing articles  on  diverse  subjects  simply  to  impress  the  name 
of  a  new  '^star"  upon  the  public. 

A  Publicity  Series. — Careful  planning  is  necessary  for 
the  success  of  a  series  of  publicity  articles.  An  inexperi- 
enced writer  may  give  away  in  his  first  announcement  all 
he  has  to  tell  and  then  may  find  himself  without  more  sub- 
jects to  discuss.     The  experienced  publicity  writer  care- 


302  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

fully  maps  out  his  entire  campaign  before  he  submits  a 
single  announcement.  He  divides  up  the  possible  material 
for  articles,  makes  a  list  of  the  subjects,  and  writes  a  sep- 
arate article  for  each  item  on  the  list.  In  this  way  he 
spreads  out  his  material  so  as  to  cover  the  ground  of  the 
campaign. 

In  the  case  of  the  home-talent  play,  for  example,  the 
material  might  be  divided  as  follows,  each  item  containing 
subject  matter  for  one  article:  iirst  announcement  of 
event ;  names  of  prominent  persons  engaged  in  the  enter- 
prise ;  names  of  officers  and  committees  appointed ;  plans 
for  rehearsals;  tryouts  for  cast;  preliminary  work  on 
selection  of  play;  the  play  selected;  its  author;  previous 
performances  of  the  play ;  why  the  play  was  selected ;  the 
cast  chosen ;  the  costumes ;  the  hall ;  the  setting ;  the  prop- 
erty ;  typical  rehearsal ;  social  events  in  connection  with  the 
play ;  plans  for  the  ticket  sale ;  previous  theatrical  efforts 
of  the  organization ;  previous  dramatic  experience  of  mem- 
bers of  the  cast;  the  Iqading  man;  the  leading  lady;  the 
chorus;  the  dress  rehearsal;  etc.,  etc.  The  list  might  be 
extended  to  any  limits,  depending  upon  the  prominence  of 
the  persons  concerned  and  the  number  of  articles  desired. 
Each  item  on  this  list  would  afford  an  interesting  article 
to  develop  interest  in  the  event  and  reiterate  its  date.  In 
addition  to  these  subjects  that  may  be  counted  on  in 
advance,  each  formal  meeting  of  the  persons  presenting 
the  play  may  be  the  subject  of  a  news  article. 

This  illustrates  the  manner  in  which  a  publicity  writer 
divides  up  his  material  in  advance.  The  danger  that  he 
must  avoid  is  that  he  will  tell  too  much  in  any  one  article, 
especially  the  first.  If  any  one  article  overlaps  another,  it 
eliminates  that  article  from  the  list.    Each,  as  it  is  written, 


PUBLICITY  MATERIAL  30B 

must  be  handled  in  a  newsy  way  and  must  be  filled  with 
details  that  will  make  it  interesting ;  the  moment  it  lapses 
into  a  formal  announcement  or  advertisement,  it  is 
useless. 

Publicity  Campaigns.  —  Interest  and  enthusiasm  for 
various  organizations  and  movements  may  be  built  up  by 
similar  publicity  campaigns.  Perhaps,  for  example,  it  is 
desired  to  publish  a  series  to  arouse  interest  in  a  charitable 
organization  in  preparation  for  its  annual  tag  day.  Such 
a  campaign  would  be  mapped  out  in  a  similar  way.  The 
publicity  writer  would  first  list  all  the  activities  and  good 
works  of  the  charity  with  the  idea  of  writing  an  article  on 
each.  The  list  might  read  as  follows :  organization  itself ; 
its  history ;  prominent  persons  connected  with  it ;  its  organ- 
ized poor  relief;  its  visiting  nurse;  its  visiting  house- 
keeper; its  central  office  and  secretary;  its  old  clothes  ex- 
change; its  furniture  exchange;  donations  by  prominent 
business  men;  its  financial  report;  its  w^ork  at  Christmas 
time ;  its  day  nursery ;  typical  stories  of  conditions  which 
it  has  discovered  and  relieved,  etc.,  etc.  An  interesting 
article,  full  of  facts  and  figures,  may  be  written  on  each  of 
these.  If  printed  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three  a  week,  they 
would  arouse  much  interest  in  the  work  of  the  charity 
organization.  E'ear  the  end  of  the  series,  the  announce- 
ment of  the  tag  day  may  be  introduced  in  a  casual  way  and 
gradually  developed  until  the  interest  is  focused  on  a  par- 
ticular date.  This  kind  of  series  creates  much  more  in- 
terest than  a.  standing  announcement  every  day  and  is 
ordinarily  well  received  by  the  newspapers  because  it  is 
interesting  reading  matter. 

Propaganda  Publicity. — More  skillful  work  is  necessary 
to  develop  publicity  for  a  campaign  that  is  not  to  be  focused 


304  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

upon  a  particular  event  or  date,  sncli  as  an  educational 
campaign.  Such  a  campaign  would  be  one  to  develop  in- 
terest in  better  schools.  Through  careful  planning,  based 
on  the  newspaper  man's  love  of  good  '^feature  articles,"  the 
publicity  w^riter  may  lay  out  a  campaign  much  like  that  for 
the  charity  organization.  His  articles  on  this  subject  aim 
to  be  informational  and  instructive.  He  hunts  up  facts 
and  figures  that  are  interesting  in  themselves.  Another 
method  would  be  to  use  ^'human  interest  stories" — to  write 
true  stories  of  various  little  episodes  that  show  the  need  of 
better  schools.  The  story  of  makeshift  class-rooms,  for 
instance,  a  talk  with  a  veteran  teacher  on  the  problem  of 
salary,  an  account  of  what  ramshackle  school  surroundings 
do  to  Johnny  from  a  poor  family,  an  anecdote  of  the  boy 
who  left  school  too  young — such  stories  as  these  will  be 
interesting  and  convincing.  An  endless  number  of  them 
may  be  discovered  in  any  city  and  written  effectively — 
without  names,  to  be  sure. 

This  will  suggest  the  possibilities  of  publicity  work  and 
the  general  method.  In  days  gone  by  the  most  skillful 
publicity  work  was  done  by  theatrical  press  agents.  Now 
almost  every  public  institution,  most  corporations,  and 
many  other  organizations  have  publicity  departments  and 
writers.  Some  of  the  best  publicity  work  is  done  by  the 
publicity  bureaus  of  various  departments  of  the  United 
States  government.  Certain  of  their  publicity  efforts  aim 
to  develop  special  interests  and  impulses  in  the  public; 
others  aim  to  educate  the  public.  Whatever  their  purpose, 
their  methods  are  usually  the  same  and  may  be  learned 
from  the  constant  stream  of  publicity  articles  that  flows 
through  the  columns  of  American  newspapers. 


PUBLICITY  MATERIAL  305 

EXERCISES  XXIV 

Monday 

1.  After  reading  the  chapter,  clip  from  one  issue  of  a 
newspaper  all  the  material  that  looks  like  publicity. 
How  can  you  tell  it?  Is  it  well  done?  Can  you  find 
evidence  of  a  campaign?     If  so,  criticize  it. 

Tuesday 

1.  Map  out,  in  writing,  a  publicity  campaign  for  an  event 
that  is  to  take  place  in  your  school.  Provide  for  ten 
articles  to  cover  a  period  of  five  weeks.  Perhaps  write 
the  first  article. 

2.  In  class,  plan  orally  a  campaign  to  arouse  interest  for 
a  tag  day  of  the  local  Y.  W.  C.  A.  or  other  organization, 
with  a  series  of  twelve  fact  articles.  Write  one  of  them 
in  which  you  mention  the  tag  day. 

^Yednesday 

1.  Make  a  written  list  of  subjects  for  articles  to  be  used 
in  a  series  which  shall  aim  to  inspire  young  men  and 
women  to  seek  higher  education.  Write  one  of  the 
articles. 

2.  In  class,  write  a  human  interest  story,  on  an  actual  case, 
to  fit  into  the  series  of  inspirational  articles  suggested. 

Thursday  Newspaper  Study 

Picture  Printing 

The  pictures  in  a  newspaper  are  printed  by  means  of  copper 
or  zinc  plates  on  which  the  lines  of  the  picture  are  raised. 
All  are  now  made  by  a  photo-engraving  process  much  like 
photography,  but  there  are  two  kinds:  (1)  the  line  engraving, 
or  zinc  etching,  which  is  used  to  print  drawings  or  cartoons; 
and  (2)  the  half-tone  used  to  reproduce  photographs,  wash 
drawings,  or  any  pictures  that  contain  shading  and  tones  of 
gray.  To  make  a  line  engraving,  the  engraver  photographs 
the  drawing  with  a  large  camera  and  develops  a  glass  negative 


306  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

like  that  used  in  photography.  Then,  instead  of  "printing" 
it  on  photographic  paper,  he  "prints"  it  on  a  coated  zinc 
plate,  on  which,  after  development,  the  picture  remains  in 
lines  of  coating.  After  building  up  this  coating  with  an 
acid-resisting  powder,  called  "dragon's  blood,"  the  engraver 
washes  the  plate  with  acid  to  etch,  or  eat  down,  the  parts 
that  are  not  protected  by  coating.  The  process  requires  prac- 
tically no  hand  work  and  takes  but  a  short  time.  The  plate 
prints,  however,  nothing  but  black  on  white.  To  obtain  the 
grays  and  shading  of  a  photograph,  the  engraver  uses  the 
half-tone  process  which  breaks  up  the  black  into  small  dots. 
The  difference  between  this  process  and  the  line  engraving 
process  is  that  the  engraver  places  a  fine  screen  (of  ruled 
glass  plates)  in  the  camera  so  that  the  light  is  broken  into 
small  dots.  The  finished  half-tone  plate  has  on  its  surface, 
not  solid  lines,  but  thousands  of  small  points;  where  the 
points  are  large,  the  picture  is  dark;  where  they  are  small, 
it  is  light.  Screens  of  different  coarseness  (from  65  to  250 
lines  per  inch)  are  used  for  various  purposes,  and  the  news- 
paper that  is  stereotyped  requires  a  very  coarse  screen.  These 
two  processes  account  for  all  the  pictures  in  a  newspaper 
except:  (1)  the  brown  or  green  rotogravure  sections  of  the 
Sunday  supplement,  which  are  made  by  a  more  complicated 
process;  and  (2)  the  colored  sections  which  require  a  separate 
engraving  for  each  primary  color. 

1.  Study  a  line  engraving  in  the  newspaper  and  imagine 
what  its  plate  looks  like. 

2.  Examine  the  texture  of  a  half-tone  in  a  newspaper. 
Note  the  minute  dots,  varying  in  size,  and  the  lines  of 
the  screen. 

3.  Compare  a  newspaper  half-tone  with  the  finer  ones  found 
in  magazines  and  books. 

4.  Study  out  the  various  color  areas  in  a  printed  colored 
picture. 


PUBLICITY  MATERIAL  307 

5.  Note  in  the  Sunday  rotogravure  section  the  absence  of 
dots  or  screen  and  the  varying  tones  due  to  depth  of  ink. 

Friday  Accuracy  Exercise 

1.  From  a  newspaper  almanac  or  a  census  report,  make  a 
list  of  all  the  cities  of  the  United  States  that  have  u 
population  of  more  than  100,000.  Place  them  in  groups 
as  follows:  100,000  to  250,000;  250,000  to  500,- 
000;  500,000  to  1,000,000;  more  than  1,000,000.  In 
what  state  is  each?  Study  the  location  and  railways 
of  each  on  the  map. 

2.  In  class,  written  memory  test.  Detail  the  shipping  and 
passenger  route  from  your  city  to  each  of  these  great 
cities.  To  which  is  your  city  most  closely  related  ?  ^\Tiat 
results  does  this  have  on  the  life  and  industry  of  your 
city  ?    Current  news. 


PART  II 

PK'ACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  STUDENT 
PUBLICATIONS 


CHAPTEK  I 
MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS 

A  discussion  of  student  publications  in  college  or  high 
school  is  included  here,  because  such  enterprises  are 
becoming  more  numerous  every  year,  and,  in  almost  every 
case,  they  offer  a  strange  and  difficult  problem  to  teachers, 
often  teachers  of  English,  who  have  had  little  experience 
with  publication  work.  These  teachers  are  asked  to  man- 
age a  publishing  enterprise  that  is  highly  technical  and  one 
that  involves  a  more  or  less  extensive  knowledge  of  printing 
and  business.  Experience  quickly  spreads  out  before  the 
teacher  the  many  details  and  problems  of  the  work,  and, 
once  the  first  steps  are  past,  the  task  is  likely  to  become 
more  fascinating  than  any  other  work  with  students.  But 
to  make  the  undertaking  seem  less  formidable,  it  is  thought 
that  some  working  suggestions  may  assist  the  teacher  in 
facing  it  with  greater  assurance.  More  important  than  a 
knowledge  of  printing  is  acquaintance  with  some  of  the 
systems  and  devices  that  publishers  use  to  simplify  the 
many  details  of  publication.  To  these  this  chapter  mainly 
is  devoted. 

Some  of  the  more  perplexing  aspects  of  student  publica- 
tions cannot  be  satisfactorily  discussed  in  such  a  book  as 
this,  since  they  are  governed  by  individual  circumstances. 
The  relation  of  the  teacher  to  the  enterprise,  for  example, 
the  placing  of  financial  and  editorial  responsibility,  the 
possible  exercise  of  faculty  censorship,  and  the  relation  of 

311 


312  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING       . 

the  paper  to  the  student  body  and  faculty  are  essential  con- 
siderations that  must  be  taken  up  at  the  outset.  But  since 
no  two  publications  find  exactly  the  same  solution  of  them 
and  since  they  are  in  the  main  questions  of  opinion  and  cir- 
cumstance, they  must  be  looked  upon  as  outside  this  dis- 
cussion. The  suggestions  to  be  given  here,  which 
are  mainly  questions  of  business  and  technique,  will 
apply  equally  well  whatever  the  circumstances  may 
be.  This  much  may  be  said  in  general,  however; 
those  in  charge  of,  or  advising,  such  an  enterprise 
should  have  a  clear  idea  in  advance  of  the  purpose — 
the  educational  value  of  the  publication,  perhaps — before 
attempting  to  settle  these  various  relations.  The  benefits 
to  be  attained  by  a  student  publication  are  obvious;  it  is 
a  great  stimulus  to  eager  student  writing,  it  molds  and 
develops  school  and  college  spirit,  it  increases  community 
and  public  interest  in  the  school,  it  gives  excellent  business 
and  vocational  training  of  a  certain  kind  to  students  on  the 
staff.  Chief  among  these  is  the  enthusiastic  interest  in 
writing  that  it  fosters  among  students,  and  this  should  be 
kept  constantly  in  the  forefront.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
teacher  must  guard  against  the  development  of  bad  habits, 
especially  in  business  matters,  and  against  the  overvalua- 
tion of  the  vocational  and  professional  training,  so  that 
students  may  not  develop  a  "know-it-alP'  attitude  sub- 
versive to  later  training  in  school  or  office.  With  a  clear 
idea  of  the  educational  purpose  of  the  publication  con- 
stantly in  mind,  the  teacher  may  obtain  all  the  benefits 
involved  and  avoid  the  (huiirers  that  threaten. 

Various  Kinds  of  Publications. — The  size,  form  and  fre- 
quency of  the  student  paper  depend  on  circumstances. 
They  depend  upon  the  number  of  students  available  for  the 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  313 

work,  since  the  burdens  should  be  carefully  divided  so  that 
no  student  will  be  permitted  to  assume  too  great  respon- 
sibility or  be  given  an  excuse  to  neglect  his  regular  studies. 
They  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  school,  since  the  circula- 
tion must  be  reckoned  as  a  small  proportion  of  the  student 
body.  They  depend  on  the  community  and  the  nature  of 
the  business  interests  near  the  school,  since  these  will  be  its 
advertisers.  A  careful  canvass  of  business  possibilities 
should  be  made  before  any  other  step  is  taken,  and  the 
result  of  the  canvass  should  be  divided  in  half.  There  is 
greater  danger  of  starting  too  large  than  too  small;  it  is 
better  to  begin  humbly  and  grow  as  circumstances  warrant, 
for  a  step  down  from  the  original  size  may  mean  failure. 

With  these  considerations  in  mind,  the  teacher  must 
decide  the  question  of  frequency,  whether  the  publication 
is  to  be  yearly,  quarterly,  monthly,  weekly,  or  perhaps 
daily.  In  the  same  way,  he  must  determine  its  size  and 
form.  Some  student  publications  are  put  up  in  the  form 
of  a  few  large  pages  in  imitation  of  the  daily  newspaper ; 
others  are  in  the  form  of  small-page  booklets.  The  first 
form  has  the  advantage  of  being  cheaper ;  the  second  offers 
greater  opportunity  for  expansion  and  contraction.  The 
addition  of  two  pages  in  the  newspaper  form — the  mini- 
mum expansion — involves  a  larger  increase  of  expense  and 
labor  than  the  addition  of  a  number  of  pages  to  the  booklet. 
The  magazine  form  also  gives  an  opportunity  to  emphasize 
the  literary  element  over  the  journalistic. 

Planning  the  Publication. — Half  the  difficulties  in- 
volved in  launching  a  publication  and  half  the  trouble  en- 
countered in  carrying  it  on  may  be  avoided  by  careful  pre- 
liminary planning  of  all  phases  of  the  work.  This 
preparatory   planning   involves   the  working   out   of  the 


314  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


organization  of  the  staff,  the  arrangement  of  financial  and 
business  problems,  and  the  physical  character  of  the  publi- 
cation. Each  is  a  separate  problem  involved  in  any 
publication,  large  or  small,  to  be  handled  separately. 

I.     Organization"  of  the  Staff 

The  problem  of  organizing  the  staff  of  a  student  paper 
involves  dividing  the  work  among  enough  students  so  that 
none  will  be  overworked  and  so  that,  at  the  same  time,  the 
organization  will  retain  a  semblance  of  centralized  respon- 
sibility to  give  the  paper  consistent  policy.  The  chief 
danger  is  that  one  student  will  be  permitted  to  shoulder  all 
the  responsibility  and  all  the  work,  to  his  own  detriment 
and  the  detriment  of  the  paper,  since  his  prominence  will 
take  too  much  of  his  own  attention  and  discourage  others. 
The  problem  is  to  divide  up  work  and  responsibility,  to 
give  each  worker  an  equal  share  and  thereby  a  greater 
incentive.  But  every  publication  must  have  a  responsible 
head  and,  since  the  success  of  the  enterprise  usually  neces- 
sitates the  delegating  of  this  authority  to  a  student,  rather 
than  a  teacher,  some  arrangement  must  be  found  that  will 
harmonize  the  two  ideas.  The  most  workable  solution 
seems  to  be  an  iron-clad  organization,  developed  to  obtain 
these  two  aims  and  definitely  protected  against  numerous 
evils. 

Check  on  Authority — It  is  easy  enough  to  work  out  a 
division  of  effort  that  will  obtain  good  results  in  publishing 
and  furnish  enough  incentive  to  attract  students  into  the 
enterprise  without  overburdening  them.  The  difficult 
problem  is  to  provide  a  check  that  will  prevent  the  am- 
bitious student  from  assuming  command  and  doing  all  the 
work.     If  the  position  of  command  involves  merely  ener- 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  315 

getic  work,  there  is  sure  to  be  an  ambitious  student  who 
will  force  himself  into  it  for  the  joy  of  doing  the  work. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  this  commanding  position  is  merely 
a  question  of  honor  and  is  elective,  it  will  be  usurped  by 
ambitious  social  leaders.  The  organization  must  be  such 
as  to  check  either.  The  social  leader  may  be  thwarted,  if 
the  position  of  authority  is  at  the  top  of  a  ladder  of  com- 
petitive work  that  discourages  all  but  the  energetic.  The 
ambitious  worker  may  be  checked  by  a  subdivision  of  labor 
that  leaves  little  actual  work  for  the  commander  to  do  once 
he  reaches  the  top.  Such  a  system  will  enable  the  worker 
to  reach  the  top  and  attain  the  honor  of  guiding  the  publi- 
cation, but  it  will  unload  most  of  his  burdens  when  he  gets 
there.  He  will  then  simply  be  the  responsible  head  direct- 
ing others  in  the  work  that  he  has  done  in  his  former  climb. 
The  value  of  learning  to  direct  others,  as  an  executive,  will 
make  the  position  worth  while. 

Division  of  Staff. — The  most  logical  way  to  organize  the 
publication's  staff  is  to  take  into  account  the  various  kinds 
of  work  to  be  done  and  to  subdivide  them  into  a  sufficient 
number  of  positions  to  insure  an  equal  burden  for  each 
worker.  This  is  easy  to  do,  because  all  publication  work 
involves  the  same  tasks.  The  first  subdivision  is  the  sep- 
aration of  editorial  and  business  w^ork  into  two  staffs  of 
workers,  since  the  work  involved  is  entirely  different  and 
requires  different  directors.  The  kinds  of  work  to  be  done 
by  the  editorial  staff  are:  (1)  writing  articles,  (2)  editing 
articles  and  writing  headlines,  (3)  keeping  track  of  copy 
and  reading  proof,  and  (4)  making  up  the  paper  into  page 
form.  In  addition,  there  are  the  separate  tasks  of  writing 
editorials  and  handling  special  departments,  as  well  as  art 
work.    The  work  to  be  done  by  the  business  staff  involves : 


316  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

(1)  handling  accounts,  (2)  soliciting,  writing,  and  making 
up  advertisements,  and  (3)  handling  subscription  lists 
and  distribution,  and  perhaps  soliciting  subscriptions. 
The  best  stalf  organization  would  be  based  on  such  a  divi- 
sion of  work,  with  a  separate  job  for  each  kind  of  work,  and 
the  easiest  way  to  work  out  such  a  staff  is  to  copy  the 
organization  that  has  developed  in  newspaper  and  maga- 
zine offices.  It  may  be  well  also  to  borrow  the  names  used 
in  such  offices  and  imitate  the  arrangement  of  authority. 

Editorial  Staff. — The  editorial  staff  must  have  a  respon- 
sible head ;  call  him  managing  editor,  give  him  authority 
to  direct  all  others  on  his  staff,  but  give  him  little  work  to 
do.  If  he  bears  the  responsibility  and  does  the  planning, 
he  should  not  be  burdened  with  details.  The  work  of 
gathering  information  and  writing  may  be  allotted  to  sev- 
eral persons,  called  reporters,  or  staff  ivriters.  The  work 
of  editing  and  writing  headlines  may  be  done  by  several 
others,  called  copy  editors,  or  desh  men  ;  these  workers  may 
also  read  proof  under  direction  from  higher  up.  The  two 
tasks  of  keeping  track  of  copy  (including  assigimients) 
and  making  up  may  be  allotted  to  two  positions  of  equal 
rank,  called  associate  editors.  Although  the  reporters  and 
copy  editors  will  be  under  the  managing  editor,  they  will 
report  to,  and  receive  directions  from,  the  associate  editors, 
whose  duty  is  to  carry  out  the  managing  editor's  ideas. 
Separate  departments,  such  as  "exchanges,"  "schools,''  etc., 
may  be  handled  by  department  editors  working  under  the 
associate  editors.  Pictures  and  drawings  may  be  handled 
by  an  art  editor,  subordinate  to  the  associate  editors.  Such 
an  arrangement  gives  the  managing  editor  the  responsi- 
bility for  evolving  ideas  and  the  associate  editors  the  re- 
sponsibility to  putting  them  into  effect  through  the  workers 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  317 

below  tliem.  Sucli  a  scheme  takes  care  of  all  the  editorial 
work  except  the  writing  of  editorials,  which  should  be 
placed  in  the  hands  of  a  responsible  student  on  a  par  with 
the  managing  editor  in  rank ;  he  will  have  his  small  section 
to  fill  and  will  bear  the  responsibility  for  what  it  says  as 
well  as  for  getting  it  done.  His  title  may  be  editor-in- 
chief,  and  his  helpers  will  be  editorial  ivriters. 

Business  Staff — The  business  staff  should,  in  the  same 
way,  be  in  charge  of  a  husiness  manager,  who  evolves  ideas 
and  directs  the  workers  under  him  but  has  little  actual 
work  to  do.  The  work  of  his  staff  should  be  placed  under 
three  heads  of  equal  authority.  One,  the  treasurer,  will 
keep  all  books  and  handle  all  money;  with  the  aid  of  a 
coiumercial  teacher  he  should  install  a  bookkeeping  system 
with  suitable  warrants,  vouchers,  and  receipts  to  make 
possible  a  systematic  auditing  of  the  publication's  finances. 
He  may  need  one  or  more  assistants  to  do  various  parts  of 
the  work.  The  second  branch  will  be  in  charge  of  the 
advertising  manager  and  will  handle  all  advertisements. 
The  advertising  manager  will  need  several  solicitors  to 
obtain  advertising,  as  well  as  an  assistant  advertising  man- 
ager to  take  charge  of  copy,  get  it  into  type,  and  supervise 
the  make-up  of  advertising  pages.  The  third  branch  will 
be  under  the  circulation  manager.  One  of  his  assistants 
will  have  charge  of  circulation  lists,  another  will  handle 
addressing  and  folding,  another  distribution  by  mail  or 
otherwise,  and  several  will  solicit  subscriptions.  The  head 
of  each  department  will  look  to  the  business  manager  for 
his  authority,  will  be  in  absolute  command  in  his  own  de- 
partment, and  will  be  compelled  to  parcel  out  the  work  of 
his  department  so  that  there  is  little  for  him  to  do  but 
direct  and  supply  ideas. 


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MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  319 

Authority. — To  weld  the  various  departments  together 
into  a  coordinate  staff,  there  should  be  one  officer,  prefer- 
ably an  able  student  who  has  worked  up  through  one  de- 
partment, with  authority  over  all  others.  He  may  be 
called  pubUsher,  or  general  manager^  and  should  do  little 
but  direct  and  supply  ideas.  Also  there  should  be  an 
executive  hoard  composed  of  the  various  department  heads 
■ — managing  editor,  editor-in-chief,  and  business  manager 
— w^ith  the  publisher  as  chairman,  to  determine  all  ques- 
tions of  policy  and  management.  The  supervising  teacher 
may  be  ex-officio  member  of  this  board.  Associate  editors, 
advertising  and  circulation  managers,  and  treasurer  may 
be  called  in  to  report  but  should  not  have  a  vote.  All  ques- 
tions of  policy  will  be  worked  out  by  the  committee,  but 
the  carrying  out  of  the  policy  will  be  delegated  to  the 
department  head  concerned  and  by  him  handed  down  to  the 
proper  worker.  The  same  idea  should  be  followed  out  in 
all  departments ;  although  ideas  and  policy  come  from  the 
committee  or  higher  officers,  there  should  be  no  meddling 
in  the  affairs  of  any  department,  except  through  its  head, 
and  each  staff  member  should  be  responsible  only  to  the 
officer  directly  above  him. 

To  increase  general  school  representation  in  the  control 
of  the  paper  and  to  prevent  the  grow^th  of  politics  in  the 
staff,  it  is  often  well  to  enlarge  the  executive  board,  or 
board  of  control,  by  adding  one  or  more  of  the  following: 
one  student  outside  the  publication  staff;  an  active  local 
alumnus  who  has  worked  on  the  staff ;  and  another  teacher 
representing  the  faculty  as  a  whole — a  different  faculty 
department  to  be  represented  each  year.  The  matter  of 
censorship  can  often  be  handled  by  delegating  the  task  to 
a  responsible  student  who  will  work  with  the  advice  of  the 


320  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

supervising  teacher;  if  well  selected,  lie  will  carry  the 
responsibility  with  credit. 

Competition. — Although  such  a  staff  appears  to  be  a 
well-formed  organization  on  paper,  it  will  never  work 
unless  the  offices  at  the  head  are  filled  by  competent  stu- 
dents, who  have  earned  the  honor  and  authority  in  a  way 
that  will  inspire  the  respect  of  the  workers  below  them. 
Just  as  soon  as  a  person  whom  the  staff  considers  incom- 
petent or  undeserving  gets  into  command,  the  whole  struc- 
ture falls  to  pieces.  It  is  built  on  respect.  The  only 
method  of  appointment  that  insures  respect  is  a  competitive 
system  so  automatic  and  unbreakable  that  no  student  can 
reach  a  position  of  authority  except  through  faithful  work, 
and  every  worker  feels  that  the  same  path  to  authority  is 
open  to  him  if  he  works  hard  enough.  The  presence  of  a 
single  elective  office  in  the  staif  will  break  down  the  struc- 
ture, for  no  worker  will  take  directions  from  a  person  who 
has  obtained  his  authority  through  popularity,  and  perhaps 
electioneering,  rather  than  through  work.  To  elect  the 
publisher  or  the  editor-in-chief  in  a  staff  composed  of  com- 
petitive w^orkers  means  to  place  a  puppet  in  this  important 
post.  An  iron-clad  plan  of  competition  with  a  regular  line 
of  promotion,  set  down  in  a  written  constitution,  is  there- 
fore necessary,  if  the  staff  is  to  work  harmoniously. 

Promotion. — Such  a  line  of  promotion  may  be  on  some 
such  plan  as  this:  In  the  editorial  department,  the  only 
place  open  to  beginners  or  newcomers  should  be  the  posi- 
tion of  reporter.  The  successful  reporter  will  then  be  pro- 
moted to  copy  editor  or  department  editor.  The  two  asso- 
ciate editors  must  be  chosen  from  among  the  copy  or 
department  editors.  One  of  the  associate  editors  will  then 
be  promoted  to  managing  editor.     Workers  in  the  art  de- 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  321 

partment  will  be  promoted  to  art  editor,  wlio  is  on  a  par 
with  department  editors.  In  the  department  under  the 
editor-in-chief,  the  succession  should  be  from  reporter  to 
editorial  writer,  then  to  editor-in-chief,  so  that  the  sequence 
will  be  as  long  as  in  other  departments,  and  the  editorial 
writers  will  not  be  beginners.  A  similar  line  of  promotion 
will  be  established  in  each  department  of  the  business  staff 
leading  to  the  office  of  treasurer,  advertising  and  circula- 
tion managers ;  the  business  manager  will  be  chosen  from 
among  these  three.  Beginners  who  act  as  reporters  in 
the  editorial  department  or  solicitors  in  the  business  de- 
partment should  be  allowed  to  shift  from  one  department 
to  another  until  they  find  the  work  to  which  they  are 
suited.  The  highest  officer,  the  general  manager  or  pub- 
lisher, should  be  chosen  from  among  the  three  department 
heads  that  compose  the  executive  board;  no  one  else 
should  be  eligible.  Thus  any  worker  has  a  chance  to 
attain  the  top  of  the  ladder  by  consistent  w^ork,  and  no 
one  can  reach  it  except  through  the  four  or  five  steps 
below. 

Basis  of  Selection — ^T\^hat  should  be  the  basis  of  com- 
petition is  not  easy  to  determine.  It  should  certainly  be 
work,  but  the  selection  between  two  workers  is  difficult. 
Shall  it  be  based  on  quantity  or  quality  or  personality? 
Among  reporters  and  solicitors,  promotion  may  be  based 
upon  quantity  of  work;  that  is,  a  reporter  must  have  so 
many  articles  published  and  a  solicitor  must  obtain  so 
many  advertisements  or  subscriptions  to  be  eligible.  The 
choice  among  those  on  the  eligible  list  may  then  be  made 
through  election  by  all  members  of  the  staff  on  the  next 
plane  above,  subject  to  the  executive  board's  approval. 
Or    promotions    may   be    decided   through    general    staff 


322  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

elections,  in  which  workers  of  each  rank  select  the  best 
of  those  in  the  rank  below. 

Frequency  of  Promotion — The  length  of  service  in  any 
one  position  should  be  worked  out  on  the  basis  of  school 
rank.  No  freshman  should  be  allowed  to  do  more  respon- 
sible work  than  reporting  or  soliciting.  The  offices  of 
copy  editor,  department  editor,  associate  editor,  art  editor, 
editorial  writer,  treasurer,  advertising  and  subscription 
manager,  and  their  assistants,  will  be  open  to  sophomores 
and  juniors.  The  offices  of  managing  editor,  editor-in- 
chief,  and  business  manager  should  be  open  only  to 
juniors  and  seniors.  The  general  manager  or  publisher 
should  be  a  senior.  A  system  of  semi-annual  promotions 
will  enable  the  best  workers  to  climb  through  the  staff 
and  reach  the  top  before  graduation;  the  necessity  of 
remaining  in  an  office  an  entire  year  if  not  promoted  will 
increase  the  competition. 

Reward  for  Service. — The  great  problem  in  many  col- 
lege and  school  papers  is  that  of  reward  for  service.  In 
many  of  them  a  system  of  prizes  and  salaries  has  been 
instituted  in  order  to  attract  students  into  the  enterprise. 
In  general,  however,  such  a  system  fails;  it  attracts  the 
kind  of  students  least  wanted  and  repels  more  desirable 
workers.  The  only  reward  should  be  the  honor  of  achiev- 
ing and  the  satisfaction  of  doing  good  work.  If,  at  the 
start,  the  publication  is  considered  as  an  achievement  in 
which  only  the  able  can  win  honor,  no  other  rewards  will 
be  necessary.  This  idea  may  be  emphasized  by  the  forma- 
tion of  an  honor  society  of  which  members  of  the  exec- 
utive board  will  be  the  only  members.  That  is,  promo- 
tion to  an  office  which  carries  membership  in  the  board 
would  constitute  election  to  membership  in  the  society. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  323 

Thus  the  society's  badge  will  stand  for  achievement  and 
become  a  traditional  school  honor.  The  publication  will 
also  be  benefited  if  a  certain  standard  of  scholarship  is 
established  as  the  basis  of  eligibility  to  staff  membership ; 
this,  of  course,  will  be  valuable  in  more  ways  than  one. 
Experience  of  American  schools  and  colleges  would  seem 
to  indicate  that  a  publication  can  best  be  made  successful 
through  a  rigid  competitive  system  without  salaries  or 
other  inducements  except  honor  of  achieving. 

The  awarding  of  service  pins  for  various  lengths  of 
service  is  successful  in  some  schools;  a  silver  pin  for  two 
years'  service,  and  a  gold  pin  for  longer  service. 

11.     FiJ^Ai^ciAL  AXD  Business  Problems 

No  student  publication  can  be  a  success  in  any  respect 
unless  it  is  a  financial  success.  Much  of  the  task,  there- 
fore, depends  upon  preliminary  consideration  of  financial 
possibilities  and  business  arrangements.  If  the  field  is 
studied  carefully  and  the  initial  edition  is  launched  under 
proper  financial  auspices,  the  future  is  likely  to  be  easier. 

The  Business  Possibilities. — If  the  publication  is  not  en- 
dowed or  supported  by  some  school  or  private  fund,  it 
has  only  two  sources  of  revenue — circulation  and  adver- 
tising. It  is  possible  for  a  publication  to  be  supported  by 
either  of  these  without  the  other;  the  commonest  practice 
is  to  depend  upon  both.  While  some  publications  lean 
heavily  on  advertising,  there  are  those  that  carry  none  at 
all.  The  chief  problem  is  the  proportion  of  the  total  ex- 
pense that  each  should  bear;  the  stability  and  make-up 
of  the  paper  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  ratio.  If 
circulation  is  depended  upon  to  the  larger  extent,  the 
publication  is  likely  to  be  more  stable;  if  advertising  is 


324  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

depended  upon,  it  Is  not  so  secure  but  is  capable  of 
greater  expansion.  It  would  seem  wise  to  place  the 
greater  burden  on  circulation  in  a  student  publication 
— to  depend  on  subscriptions  for  60  or  70  per  cent  of 
the  support.  This  is  because  stability  is  more  desirable 
than  possibility  of  growth  in  such  a  venture. 

To  determine  tlie  amount  of  revenue  available,  it  is 
necessary  to  canvass  the  entire  field.  It  is  necessary  to 
estimate  the  number  of  subscribers  that  can  be  obtained 
and  to  determine  the  subscription  price  that  will  attract 
respect  without  taxing  student  purses.  A  large  circula- 
tion at  small  price  is  better  than  small  circulation  at 
high  price,  if  the  price  is  high  enough  to  denote  value. 
In  this  estimate  it  is  well  to  count  on  only  a  small  pro- 
portion of  the  student  body;  perhaps  a  preliminary  sub- 
scription campaign  or  a  vote  of  a  representative  class 
will  give  the  proportion.  In  advertising  the  same  policy 
must  be  followed.  Here  the  publisher  is  even  more  likely 
''to  count  his  chickens  before  they  are  hatched.''  But 
a  little  thought  will  open  up  greater  possibilities  than 
appear  at  first.  A  good  way  to  find  these  possibilities  is 
to  make  a  list  of  all  the  things  that  the  average  student 
buys  and  to  investigate  the  places  where  the  purchases 
are  made.  This  will  suggest  what  local  merchants  and 
firms  may  advertise,  when  this  potential  market  is  pointed 
out  to  them.  The  work  should  not  stop  there;  it  is  pos- 
sible to  interest  firms  and  merchants  who  do  mail  order 
business  or  advertise  trade-marked  goods,  if,  again,  the 
potential  market  is  pointed  out  through  significant  figures. 
The  out-of-town  advertisers  will  prove  more  profitable, 
since  they  will  be  more  willing  to  sign  long-time  con- 
tracts.    Inquiry  among  other  student  editors   and  local 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  325 

newspaper  men  will  indicate  the  price  that  can  safely 
be  charged  for  space.  When  the  advertising  and  circula- 
tion possibilities  have  been  thoroughly  studied  and  re- 
duced to  figures — and  not  until  then — the  publisher  is 
ready  to  undertake  to  plan  his  magazine,  for  its  make-up 
will  depend  upon  the  support  available. 

The  Business  Manager's  Work — Since  financial  success 
is  essential,  the  work  of  this  department  must  be  planned 
with  great  care.  Not  only  must  it  be  handled  in  a 
businesslike  fashion  which  will  inspire  confidence  of 
business  men  with  whom  it  deals,  but  it  must  be  organ- 
ized with  a  view  to  giving  the  workers  in  it  the  proper 
attitude  toward  business.  There  should  be  no  loophole 
for  dishonesty,  ^^graft,'^  or  ^^rake-ofi''  to  tempt  the  student 
who  handles  other  people's  money.  Carelessness  in  the 
supervision  of  his  accounts  may  give  him  a  chance  to 
tamper  with  them  and  to  develop  habits  of  dishonesty 
which  he  will  take  out  into  his  later  life  work.  The  com- 
mercial teacher  may  be  called  in  to  devise  a  system  of 
accounting  that  will  make  possible  thorough  auditing  and 
leave  no  loopholes.  Several  other  definite  things  may  be 
done  to  reduce  temptation.  The  acceptance  of  ^'trade 
ads" — advertisements  paid  for  in  trade  or  merchandise — 
should  be  positively  prohibited,  since  they  are  a  most 
fruitful  source  of  dishonesty  in  student  publications. 
The  only  safe  basis  for  accepting  them  is  on  condition  that 
the  business  manager  take  care  of  selling  the  merchandise 
and  deposit  the  full  sale  price  in  the  treasury  as  the 
price  of  the  advertisement,  but,  in  general,  the  best  rule 
is  ^'No  trade  ads  accepted."  No  rake-off  or  commission 
from  any  source  to  any  member  of  the  staff  should  be 
countenanced.     Some  student  publications  make  the  mis- 


326  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

take  at  the  outset  of  allowing  to  the  business  manager  or 
solicitor  a  commission  on  advertising  he  obtains.  They 
rue  it  later,  for,  unless  he  is  most  upright,  he  may  ruin 
both  the  publication  and  his  own  character.  Further- 
more, why  is  a  member  of  the  business  staff  entitled  to 
pay  more  than  any  other  workers  on  the  paper  ?  The  best 
working  spirit  will  be  engendered  if  no  salaries  or  com- 
missions are  allowed  in  any  department ;  the  task  will  be 
better  done  and  will  give  better  training  if  it  is  done 
simply  for  the  love  of  the  work. 

The  Treasurer — The  keeping  of  the  publication's  ac- 
counts and  the  handling  of  its  money  will  offer  a  means  of 
interesting  commercial  students  in  the  work.  Their 
teacher  may  assist  them  in  installing  a  good  system  of 
books  and  in  keeping  them  up  to  date.  The  treasurer 
should  be  supplied  with  adequate  books,  vouchers,  war- 
rants, and  orders,  to  make  his  work  businesslike,  and  his 
work  should  be  audited  frequently.  Pocket  account-book 
methods  and  verbal  orders  and  contracts  should  be  for- 
bidden. No  money  should  be  handled  by  anyone  but  the 
treasurer,  and  he  should  be  taught  to  render  frequent 
reports  of  the  publication's  financial  standing. 

The  Advertising  Manager— The  handling  of  advertis- 
ing involves,  not  only  soliciting  and  obtaining  advertise- 
ments, but  also  superintending  typographical  composition 
and  make-up  of  advertising  space.  The  work  may  be 
divided  among  several  solicitors  for  the  local  field,  one  or 
two  solicitors  to  handle  correspondence  with  out-of-town 
firms,  and  an  assistant  manager  to  care  for  the  printing 
end.  It  must  be  done  in  a  businesslike  way,  for  the 
advertisers  are  practically  the  only  part  of  the  outside 
world  that  will  come  in  contact  with  the  publication. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  327 

1.  Soliciting, — Much  of  the  success  of  this  department 
will  depend  upon  the  method  of  soliciting  business. 
Advertising  has  become  a  science,  and,  strange  to  say,  its 
basis  is  better  understood  by  many  business  men  who 
advertise  than  by  many  publication  managers.  Small 
merchants,  to  be  sure,  do  not  always  recognize  it  as  a 
science,  but  work  with  them  offers  a  chance  to  develop 
new  fields.  To  succeed  with  either  class,  the  advertising 
manager  must  know  something  of  the  science.  The 
modern  theory  of  advertising,  from  the  business  man's 
point  of  view,  is  that  he  pays  the  publication  a  sum  of 
money  to  place  an  announcement  of  his  goods  before  a 
certain  number  of  readers,  and  the  price  to  be  paid  de- 
pends upon  the  actual  business  returns  to  be  expected 
from  the  circulatsd  announcement.  The  returns  may  not 
be  actual  sales — they  may  be  simply  the  spreading  broad- 
cast of  a  trade-mark — ^but  they  can  be  figured  in  dollars 
and  cents.  From  the  publication's  point  of  view,  advertis- 
ing is  the  sale  of  a  definite  amount  of  space  at  a  price 
somewhat  above  the  cost  of  paper  and  composition  of  the 
advertisement.  From  either  point  of  view,  it  is  a  business 
transaction — the  sale  of  a  definite  commodity  or  service. 
Never  should  advertising  be  solicited  as  "charity"  or  as 
something  '^owed  to  the  students."  Advertising  should 
be  offered  only  to  those  who  will  derive  a  definite  profit 
from  it  and  should  be  presented  to  them  in  that  light. 
The  merchant,  to  be  sure,  will  not  always  see  the  profit 
until  it  is  pointed  out  to  him,  and,  when  he  sees  it,  he 
may  not  know  how  to  secure  it.  Here  the  advertising 
manager's  work  comes  in.  He  studies  his  publication's 
advertising  possibilities,  figures  out  the  possibilities  for 
any  merchant,  and  then  points  them  out.     This  may  in- 


328  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

volve  analyzing  the  circulation,  developing  "talking 
points,"  and  even  writing  ads  that  make  the  proper 
appeals.  It  involves  training  the  advertiser  as  well  as  the 
solicitor.  But  in  the  end  it  will  obtain  the  kind  of  adver- 
tising sought  and  make  the  most  of  the  publication's 
financial  possibilities. 

2.  Follow-up, — Modern  advertising  consists,  not  only 
in  selling  space  and  banking  the  money,  but  also  in  fol- 
lowing it  up  to  determine  its  "pulling  power."  The  pub- 
lisher tries  to  find  exactly  what  benefit  his  advertiser 
reaps.  One  method  is  to  place  a  "key  address"  in  the 
ad  so  that  the  advertiser  can  tell  in  a  general  way  what 
letters  come  in  response  to  the  advertisement.  In  local 
advertising  a  similar  method  is  to  feature  a  particular 
piece  of  goods  or  a  price  so  that  the  purchaser's  request 
will  indicate  that  he  is  answering  the  advertisement. 
Such  indicated  returns  give  the  best  basis  for  advertising 
rates.  It  is  all  a  complicated  problem  of  business  in 
which  the  publisher's  profit  is  a  corollary  of  the  adver- 
tiser's profit,  and  the  advertising  manager  should  study 
a  good  book  on  advertising  as  preparation. 

3.  Advertising  Rates. — The  first  necessity  in  the  adver- 
tising department  is  the  establishment  of  a  definite  system 
of  space  division  and  a  definite  scale  of  rates  which  shall 
be  the  same  to  all  advertisers.  The  division  of  space 
should  be  such  as  to  efi^ect  easy  make-up,  and  rate-cutting 
should  be  prohibited ;  reductions  on  contracts  are  not  to 
be  classed  as  cut  rates  since  they  are  the  same  to  all. 
The  point  is  that  no  favors  should  be  shown;  no  free 
write-ups  or  "readers"  to  assist  advertisements  shoukl  be 
granted.  The  advertiser  purchases  a  given  amount  of 
space  and  is  entitled  to  no  more  for  his  money. 


MANAGE^IENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  329 

4.  Division  of  Space. — In  a  publication  of  the  maga- 
zine form  a  good  division  of  space  is  by  the  full  page, 
half  page,  quarter  page,  etc.  Space  may  be  further  sub- 
divided by  columns  and  column-inches  (a  vertical  inch  in 
a  standard  column).  The  full  j)age  will  then  be  the 
basis  of  rates.  In  a  publication  with  larger  pages  or  in 
newspaper  form  it  is  better  to  sell  space  on  the  basis  of 
the  column-inch.  Just  what  the  basic  rate  shall  be  de- 
pends on  circumstances — on  size  of  circulation,  size  of 
community,  and  readers'  purchasing  power.  The  only 
way  to  estimate  it  is  to  consult  other  student  publishers 
and  local  newspapers  and  to  strike  what  seems  to  be  a 
fair  rate.  Later,  if  advertising  returns  are  carefully 
checked,  it  will  be  possible  to  fix  a  more  equitable  rate. 
At  the  same  time  the  publisher  must  remember  what  the 
advertising  costs  him.  In  the  average  printing  office  it 
costs  at  least  from  8  to  15  cents  per  column-inch  (13  ems 
pica)  to  set  up  type  matter.  The  cost  of  the  white  paper 
which  the  advertisement  occupies  adds  more,  depending 
on  the  circulation.  The  cost  will  vary  under  different 
conditions,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  a  charge  of  less  than 
12  or  15  cents  an  inch  will  not  pay  printing  cost.  To 
realize  a  profit,  the  publisher  must  charge  20,  25,  or  even 
35  cents  an  inch  for  each  insertion.  Printing  costs  must 
be  ascertained  before  the  rate  is  fixed,  since  they  will 
indicate  the  minimum  price. 

5.  Rate  Scale. — Another  consideration  is  the  i-elative 
value  of  different  spaces.  Half  a  page  is  not  as  valuable 
as  a  full  page,  but  it  is  worth  more  than  half  as  much. 
It  is  therefore  customary  to  have  a  sliding  scale  that  gives 
a  minimum  rate  per  inch  on  the  full  page,  a  slightly 
higher  rate  per  inch  (perhaps  10  per  cent  higher)  on  the 


330  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

half  page,  and  so  on  np  to  the  ad  of  a  single  inch.  It 
is  usual,  also,  to  give  a  reduction  on  contracts  for  several 
insertions,  since  the  contract  saves  office  expense  for  the 
publisher.  A  slightly  higher  rate  should  be  charged  for 
preferred  positions,  such  as  back  cover,  first  page  after 
reading  matter,  and  near  special  departments. 

6.  Bate  Card. — After  the  sliding  scale  has  been  ar- 
ranged, it  should  be  embodied  in  a  printed  rate  card,  like 
the  following.  The  card  includes  all  sizes  which  the  pub- 
lisher will  sell  and  other  data. 


Advertisixg  Rates  for  One  Ixsertiox 

Full  page  $10.00 

Half  page 5.50 

Quarter  page 3.00 

One  column   , 5.50 

One  inch  (single  column) .90 

Preferred  position  20  per  cent  extra. 

Discount  on  contracts:   5  per  cent  for  each  insertion 

after  the  first. 
Dimensions :    Size  of  page,  7  X  10  inches — two  columns 

— column  width,   18   ems  pica    (3   inches) — column 

length,  8  inches. 
Rates  suljjoct  to  chanofe  without  notice. 


The  above  rates  are  figured  on  the  basis  of  a  minimum 
page  rate  with  about  10  per  cent  added  to  the  page  rate  in 
each  step  down  the  scale.  In  a  publication  of  newspaper 
size  it  is  better  to  begin  with  the  inch  rate  and  discount 
proportionately  on  larger  insertions. 

T.  Advei'tising  Contract. — It  is  convenient  to  print  the 
advertising  contract  on  the  back  of  the  rate  card  in  such 
a  form  as  to  serve  as  an  order  as  well  as  a  contract. 
Space  may  be  left  on  the  back  for  other  records,  such  a? 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  331 

date  of  paTnient  and  approval  of  proof.  If  of  convenient 
size,  the  cards  mav  be  kept  in  an  indexed  file.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  good  contract  form: 


Maxager,  Studext  Monthly, 

Eastville  School, 
Eastville,  Ind. 

Please   insert  advertisement  of  the  undersigned  to 

occupy of  space,  commencing 

for insertions,  for  which agree  to  pay 


Proof  sent Proof  approved Paid, 


Most  advertisers  will  ask  to  see  a  procf  of  their  adver- 
tisements before  publication,  and  the  approved  proof 
should  be  saved  as  a  part  of  their  correspondence.  It  is 
necessary  to  send  them  one  or  two  copies  of  the  publica- 
tion w^ith  the  bill.  The  time  of  billing  will  depend  on 
circumstances,  but  it  is  w^ell  to  send  bills  immediately 
after  publication  and  request  proportionate  payments  on 
contracts  after  the  appearance  of  each  insertion.  Every 
step  should  be  carried  out  in  a  businesslike  manner,  and 
everything  should  be  recorded  and  filed.  Printed  bill 
and  letter  heads  should  be  used,  and  all  correspondence 
should  be  typewritten. 

The  Circulation  Manager. — Since  the  student  publica- 
tion will  be  mainly  distributed  in  the  college  or  school 
buildings,  the  circulation  manao;er  is  not  confronted  wdth 
serious  problems  of  mailing,  wrapping,  addressing,  etc. 
His  w^ork  will  consist  largely  of  soliciting  subscriptions 
and  keeping  his  records. 


332  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

1.  Building  Circulation. — The  soliciting  can  best  be 
handled  by  a  number  of  solicitors  whose  work  makes  them 
a  definite  part  of  the  business  staff,  with  promotion  as 
their  reward.  Their  efficiency  will  be  decreased  if  they 
are  paid  commissions  or  offered  prizes;  the  only  rewar(l 
should  be  opportunity  for  promotion.  They  are  no  more 
deserving  of  financial  reward  than  are  reporters.  The 
methods  of  enlarging  circulation  will  depend  on  the  man- 
ager's ingenuity.  He  may  devise  many  circulation 
schemes.  He  will  obtain  the  best  results,  however,  and 
help  the  publication  most  if  he  obtains  subscriptions  en- 
tirely on  the  basis  of  the  publication's  value  and  through 
interest  developed  in  it.  Premiums  and  prizes  for  sub- 
scriptions tend  to  cheapen  it.  The  best  circulation  plan 
is  the  development  of  general  interest  in  the  paper.  If 
interest  in  working  for  the  publication  and  reading  it  can 
be  quickened,  its  sale  will  take  care  of  itself ;  a  campaign 
to  bring  more  students  on  the  staff  is  the  best  kind  of 
circulation  campaigTi.  The  student  buyer  cannot  be  ap- 
pealed to  through  personal  benefi.t  as  the  readers  of  other 
magazines  can;  he  must  be  appealed  to  as  part  o^\mer 
of  the  student  paper,  duty  bound  to  help  it  succeed.  This 
idea  can  best  be  fostered  by  opening  the  staff  to  all  comers 
and  printing  in  the  paper  things  that  will  interest  every 
kind  of  student.  Since  the  student  paper  has  this  broad 
ownership  and  large  staff  of  workers,  the  circulation  man- 
ager will  probably  find  it  necessary  to  charge  the  regular 
subscription  price  to  staff'  members  and  give  no  free 
copies. 

2.  Cash  Basis. — Half  the  circulation  bookkeeping  will 
be  saved  if  a  cash  system  is  established — cash  payment 
before   the   subscriber's   name   is  entered   on  the   books. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  333 

With  this  system  every  name  represents  a  paid  subscrip- 
tion, and  the  only  records  needed  are  the  list  of  names 
and  the  dates  on  which  snbscriptions  expire.  A  card 
index,  in  which  the  subscription  blank  is  a  card  for  each 
subscriber,  is  an  easy  means  to  keep  the  records.  If  sub- 
scriptions expire  at  different  times,  the  cards  may  be 
arranged  in  separate  groups  corresponding  to  expiration 
dates.  Single  copies  may  be  sold  on  a  cash  basis,  but  this 
will  cause  a  fluctuation  in  the  circulation  that  will  bother 
the  business  manager ;  single  copy  sale  may  be  discouraged 
by  raising  the  single  copy  price  to  a  figure  out  of  propor- 
tion with  the  subscription  price. 

3.  Wrapping. — For  the  small  part  of  the  circulation 
that  must  be  sent  through  the  mail  the  easiest  and  cheap- 
est form  of  wrapper  is  a  manilla  envelope  or  a  piece  of 
manilla  paper  rolled  around  the  publication  and  pasted. 
If  envelopes  are  used,  each  should  bear  the  name  of  the 
publication  and  perhaps  a  note  reading:  ^'Postmaster: 
If  not  delivered,  please  notify  publisher  and  postage  will 
be  sent  for  return."  If  sent  under  second-class  periodical 
postal  rate,  a  special  notice  is  needed. 

4.  Addressing. — If  the  mail  circulation  is  less  than 
500  copies,  the  easiest  way  to  address  envelopes  is  by 
hand  or  on  the  typewriter.  For  larger  circulation  the 
manager  will  need  to  use  a  ''mustange  mailer"  or  a  stencil 
addressing  machine,  depending  on  which  the  printer  or 
the  school  owns.  The  card  index  of  the  mailing  list  will 
then  be  duplicated  in  linotype  slugs  for  the  mustange,  or 
stencils  for  the  addressograph. 

5.  Postage. — Mailing  cost  depends  upon  the  nature  of 
the  publication  and  its  circulation.  The  usual  school 
paper  will  be  mailed  as  third-class  matter  (at  the  rate  of 


334  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

1  cent  for  two  ounces  or  fraction  thereof)  with  stamps 
affixed.  If  its  mail  circulation  is  large  enough  to  war- 
rant, the  second-class  periodical  rate  (1  cent  per  pound) 
may  be  obtained,  and  it  may  be  mailed  in  bulk  without 
stamps.  This  rate  must  be  obtained  through  the  local 
'postmaster.  It  is  well,  also,  if  the  mail  circulation  is  of 
any  size,  to  consult  the  postmaster  in  regard  to  various 
postal  laws  concerning  publications. 

The  Printer. — The  printing  contract  should  be  let  by 
the  business  manager  or  the  publisher,  with  the  approval 
of  the  executive  board.  Bids  should  not  be  sought  until 
after  all  preliminary  planning  has  been  completed,  for  the 
printer  will  need  to  get  down  to  brass  tacks  to  figure  his 
price;  the  publication's  size  and  make-up  must  be  deter- 
mined, and  its  financial  support  assured,  before  he  is 
asked  to  bid.  Once  the  preliminary  planning  has  been 
done,  it  should  be  embodied  in  w^ritten  specifications  and 
perhaps  a  dummy  (to  be  explained  later)  so  that  there 
will  be  no  question  about  requirements.  These  specifica- 
tions should  then  be  placed  before  several  printers  so  that 
they  may  bid  on  them.  It  is  not  necessary,  of  course,  to 
take  the  lowest  bid,  but  other  bids  will  be  a  check  on  the 
justness  of  the  price  asked  by  the  most  desirable  printer. 

When  the  bid  is  accepted,  it  should  be  embodied  in  a 
written  contract  with  the  written  specifications  attached. 
The  contract  should  be  such  as  will  stand  the  test  of  the 
law  court  and  should  cover  every  point  on  which  a  ques- 
tion may  arise.  The  average  printer,  especially  if  he  is 
bidding  low,  will  prefer  to  submit  a  lump  bid  for  the 
entire  work,  since  that  is  to  his  advantage.  Such  a  con- 
tract is  not  to  the  publisher's  advantage,  because  it  allows 
for  no  expansion  or  contraction  and  because  the  printer 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  335 

may  be  figuring  on  ^'the  high  cost  of  extras''  to  make  up 
for  the  lo\vness  of  his  bid.  To  allow  for  growth  in  size 
and  circulation,  he  should  be  asked  to  break  up  his  bid 
into  several  parts.  He  should  be  asked  to  fix  a  price  per 
page  for  composition,  a  price  per  hundred  copies  for  press 
work,  binding,  and  folding,  and  a  price  for  each  extra  run 
on  the  press  occasioned  by  growth  in  number  of  pages. 
With  such  a  contract,  the  editor  may  enlarge  his  publica- 
tion or  make  it  smaller  at  a  proportionately  just  price. 
In  the  contract  the  printer  should  state  how  much  cor- 
rection and  alteration  will  be  permitted  without  extra 
charge  and  at  what  rate  extra  charges  will  be  made.  The 
contract  should  also  specify  the  quality  of  work  expected 
so  that  a  bad  piece  of  work  may  be  rejected  if  necessary. 
Financial  Responsibility. — One  of  the  greatest  prob- 
lems of  the  student  publication  is  the  fixing  of  financial 
responsibility,  since  many  printers  have  lost  heavily  on 
such  publications  and  often  hesitate  to  undertake  them 
unless  assured  of  payment  by  responsible  persons.  The 
reason  is,  of  course,  that  the  students  who  own  the  publi- 
cation are  minors.  Few  teachers  and  administrators  wish 
to  assume  financial  responsibility  without  having  more  or 
less  authority  in  the  management,  and  such  an  arrange- 
ment makes  the  publication  less  of  the  nature  of  a  student 
enterprise.  Incorporation  as  a  stock  company  is  rarely  a 
solution  unless  much  of  the  stock  is  held  by  responsible 
persons  outside  the  student  body;  such  an  arrangement 
again  brings  in  outsiders  and  their  right  to  authority. 
Many  expedients  have  been  tried  and  most  of  them  are  not 
workable.  Two  things  can  always  be  done,  however,  and 
perhaps  a  combination  of  the  two  is  the  best  basis  for  the 
student  publication.     The  first  is  to  begin  in  a  small  way, 


336  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

paying  for  each  number  as  it  is  issued  and  never  looking 
ahead  further  than  is  warranted  by  resources  in  hand 
or  within  reach.  If  enough  advertising  and  circulation 
are  obtained  to  pay  for  the  first  number,  these  assets  will 
be  sufiicient  to  interest  the  printer  in  publishing  one  num- 
ber; after  the  first  number  has  been  paid  for,  resources 
may  be  gathered  for  the  next — a  slow  process  but  a  sure 
one.  With  a  skilled  person,  perhaps  the  commercial 
teacher,  to  audit  the  books  and  advise  the  business  man- 
ager, indebtedness  may  be  kept  down  to  a  safe  figure,  and 
little  responsibility  need  be  incurred.  The  second  method 
is  to  begin  at  the  outset  to  place  aside  a  definite  amount 
of  the  income  as  a  sinking  fund  for  emergencies.  With 
this  fund  properly  deposited  and  protected  against  im- 
proper draughts,  the  publication  is  always  on  a  safe  finan- 
cial footing  and  ready  to  inspire  a  printer's  confidence. 

III.     Size,  Type,  axd  Make-up 

Before  a  printer  is  asked  to  bid  on  the  student  publica- 
tion, its  managers  should  have  a  fairly  definite  idea  of  its 
size  and  make-up.  This  requires  much  preliminary 
planning.  Some  things  must,  of  course,  be  left  to  a  final 
talk  with  the  printer,  for  the  exact  page  size  and  typog- 
raphy will  depend  much  upon  his  mechanical  facilities. 
These  are,  however,  merely  finishing  touches  on  the  plan. 

Cost. — Let  it  be  said  first  that  the  cost  w411  have  little 
to  do  with  the  artistic  or  inartistic  appearance  of  the  fin- 
ished publication.  Its  attractiveness  will  depend  upon 
the  care  with  which  it  is  worked  out;  up  to  a  certain 
point  a  pleasing  piece  of  printing  costs  no  more  than  an 
ugly  one.  The  various  factors  in  the  cost  are  paper,  com- 
position, presswork,  and  binding.    Of  these,  only  the  first 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  337 

will  have  much  effect  on  the  cost  unless  the  managers 
choose  an  odd  size  that  requires  extra  presswork  or  an 
unusual  binding  that  requires  extra  hand  work.  Pleasing 
appearance  depends  more  on  a  wise  selection  of  type  and 
careful  make-up,  rather  than  on  other  factors. 

Capacity. — The  first  consideration  in  the  planning  is 
the  capacity  desired.  It  is  necessary  to  decide  how  many 
articles,  how  many  thousand  words,  and  how  many  adver- 
tisements the  finished  publication  must  carry.  Decisions 
on  size  and  make-up  must  be  based  on  capacity. 

Size  of  Pages — This  must  be  considered  under  two 
heads — the  magazine  form  and  the  newspaper  form.  Be- 
fore going  further,  the  managers  must  decide  which  they 
prefer  on  the  basis  of  advantages  discussed  earlier. 

1.  Magazine  Form. — In  this  form  the  page  size  will  de- 
pend on  the  number  of  columns  desired.  The  columns 
fix  the  width,  and  the  page's  length  is  usually  worked  out 
on  the  basis  of  what  is  considered  an  ideal  proportion, 
for  example,  perhaps  the  proportion  of  5  X  7%.  (1) 
If  one  column  is  used,  the  column  will  probably  be  at  least 
41/2  inches  wide,  or  27  ems  pica  (see  page  377).  This 
would  necessitate  the  use  of  fairly  large  type  and  would 
hardly  be  desirable,  because  it  would  afford  little  chance 
for  decorative  display.  With  this  make-up  the  page  would 
be  about  6X9  inches  over  all.  Some  publications  are 
put  up  in  31/o-inch  (21  ems  pica)  columns  on  pages 
5  X  7%,  but  that  is  very  small.  (2)  If  two  columns  are 
used,  the  smallest  page  would  be  6X9,  since  the  nar- 
rowest practicable  column  is  2V6  inches  (13  ems  pica). 
It  is  better  to  use  an  8  X  11  page  with  3-inch  (18  ems 
pica)  columns,  or  even  S^/o  X  12  with  3%-inch  (21  ems 
pica)    columns.      (3)    If   three    columns    are    used,    the 


338  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

smallest  page  is  8%  X  12  with  2V6-inch  (13  ems  pica) 
columns.  The  largest  practicable  three-column  page  is 
11  X  14  with  3-inch  (18  ems  pica)  columns.  (4)  There 
are,  of  course,  mediums  and  combinations  of  these 
varieties,  but  this  discussion  will  show  the  basis  of  the 
reckoning.  Exact  page  size  must  be  worked  out  with  the 
printer  on  the  basis  of  standard  paper  sizes  and  the  size  of 
his  press,  but  the  managers  may  reach  a  fairly  definite 
conclusion  before  consulting  him. 

2.  Newspaper  Form. — In  the  newspaper  form  there 
is  less  choice.  With  the  large  page  the  standard  paper 
size  and  the  press  will  determine  rather  exactly  the 
cheapest  size.  The  only  question  is  the  number  of  col- 
umns and  their  width.  Most  newspapers  use  a  column 
about  2Vg  inches  (13  ems  pica)  wide.  It  is  possible,  of 
course,  to  use  a  wider  column,  but  narrower  than  2  inches 
is  impracticable.  The  number  of  columns  has  much  to 
do  with  symmetry  and  display.  Four  columns  are  prob- 
ably the  minimum  because  three  columns,  even  wide  ones, 
would  look  unnatural  and  would  give  little  chance  for 
display  of  articles.  Four  columns,  however,  make  a  dif- 
ficult page  because  it  is  hard  to  obtain  symmetry  in  an 
even  number  of  columns.  It  is  customary  to  obtain 
symmetry  by  placing  the  largest  headlines  in  the  two  out- 
side columns  and  by  using  large  and  small  headlines  in 
alternate  columns.  To  satisfy  the  two  requirements  in 
an  even  number  of  columns  requires  the  grouping  together 
of  two  columns  in  the  center  of  the  page.  Five  columns, 
therefore,  aiford  a  handier  pnge  although  they  make  a 
large  paper;  more  than  five  columns  is  unusual.  Most 
student  publications  of  this  form  use  a  five-column  page 
or   a   four-column   page   with   two   columns   grouped   to- 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  339 

gether  under  one  headline  or  a  picture ;  a  seven-column 
page  is  used  in  a  few. 

Number  of  Pages. — This  again  depends  upon  the  form 
of  the  publication : 

1.  Magazine  Form. — The  number  of  pages  is  rather 
definitely  determined  bj  the  way  in  which  they  are 
handled  on  the  press.  The  printer  does  not  make  up  and 
print  one  page  at  a  time  on  small  sheets  but  makes  up  a 
large  number  of  pages  in  a  single  form  and  prints  them 
all  at  once  on  one  large  sheet  of  paper.  He  then  prints 
the  same  number  on  the  back  of  the  large  sheet,  folds  the 
sheet  into  the  form  of  pages,  binds  it  on  a.  stapling  ma- 
chine, and  separates  the  pages  by  trimming  off  the  folded 
edge  with  a  cutter.  The  npopssitiVs  nf  folding  usually 
require  that  he  print  a  form  of  four,  eight,  sixteen,  or 
thirty-two  pages  at  a  time.  This  means  that  the  magazine 
has  eight,  sixteen,  thirty-two,  or  sixty-four  pages.  He 
may  vary  the  number  by  using  twelve-  or  twenty-four-page 
forms  or  obtain  exact  numbers  of  pages  by  various  com- 
binations of  these  forms.  But  this  is  always  true:  he 
must  always  print  an  even  number  of  pages  and  usually  a 
multiple  of  four.  The  printer  works  out  his  presswork 
by  finding  out  how  many  pages  of  the  given  size  he  can 
get  from  a  large  sheet  of  paper  and  then  dividing  this 
into  the  total  number  of  pages  to  determine  the  number 
of  ''runs"  on  the  press.  Since  paper  comes  in  certain 
standard  sizes,  the  printer  can  often  save  paper  or  press 
runs  by  slightly  altering  the  size  or  number  of  pages. 

Eor  example,  if  the  page  is  6  X  9,  the  printer  can  get 
sixteen  pages  on  one  side  of  a  standard  25  X  38  sheet  and 
can  print  thirty-two  pages  in  two  press  runs.  (The  extra 
inch  or  two  in  each  dimension  of  the  lars^e  sheet  allows 


340  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

for  folding  and  trimming.)  But  to  print  twenty-four 
pages  he  would  have  to  use  four  press  runs  (two  eights 
and  two  fours)  unless  he  happened  to  use  a  twelve-page 
form.  He  would  print  it  in  two  forms — one  sixteen  and 
one  eight — and  then  split  the  sheet,  to  shorten  the  press 
runs,  but  it  would  require  about  as  much  work.  A  book- 
let of  twenty-eight  pages  would  require  even  more  press 
work.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the  determination 
of  the  exact  number  of  pages  is  complicated  and  must  be 
worked  out  by  the  printer.  An  understanding  of  the 
problem  by  the  managers  will,  however,  assist  them  in 
obtaining  what  they  desire.  In  general,  the  best  numbers 
of  pages  are  eight,  sixteen,  thirty-tv/o — or,  at  any  rate, 
multiples  of  four. 

2.  Newspaper  Form. — Here  the  number  of  pages  is 
easier  to  determine.  The  simplest  form  is  a  single  sheet 
printed  on  one  or  both  sides,  but  this  would  be  rather 
modest.  It  would  be  better  to  use  a  folio  of  four  pages, 
even  if  the  pages  are  smaller.  The  next  larger  size  is 
six  pages,  but  that  involves  an  inset  of  one  sheet,  either 
pasted  or  inserted  loosely.  If  there  are  to  be  more  than 
four  pages,  it  is  better  to  select  eight,  because  the  saving 
•in  press  work  almost  counterbalances  the  extra  composi- 
tion. 

Paper — The  considerations  in  the  selection  of  print 
paper  are:  surface,  weight,  strength  and  body,  color, 
durability,  and  cost.  Paper  varies  in  all  these  qualities 
and  almost  any  combination  may  be  obtained.  Each, 
however,  must  be  considered  separately. 

1.  Surface  is  selected  on  the  basis  of  the  smoothness 
and  firmness  needed  for  the  typography  and  illustrations. 
There  are  various  names  for  various  surfaces  and  the  fol- 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  341 

lowing  are  the  commonest,  arranged  in  order  from  rough- 
est to  smoothest:  antique,  egg  shell,  news  print,  machine 
finish,  English  finish,  calendered,  sized  and  super-calen- 
dered, coated,  enamelled,  plate,  etc.  Soft,  rough  paper 
prints  deeply,  and  hard  paper  receives  only  a  surface  im- 
pression. Soft  paper  is  therefore  better  for  blacker  type, 
and  hard  paper  is  better  for  sharp,  fine-cut  type.  Illus- 
trations made  from  line  engravings,  commonly  called  zinc 
cuts,  show  up  well  on  almost  any  paper.  Copper  half- 
tones, however,  require  smooth,  hard  paper,  and  the  finer 
screen  the  cut,  the  harder  the  paper  must  be;  it  is  prac- 
tically impossible  to  get  good  results  with  copper  half-tones 
on  paper  rougher  than  machine-finished.  Zinc  half-tones 
of  coarse  screen  may  be  used  on  rough  paper. 

2.  Weight  of  paper  is  directly  related  to  the  size  of 
the  page ;  the  larger  the  page,  the  heavier  the  paper  must 
be.  Print  paper  is  sold  by  the  pound,  and  its  weight  is 
reckoned  on  the  basis  of  the  weight  of  a  ream  (500  sheets) 
of  the  size  in  question.  For  example,  a  paper  may  be 
listed  as  26  X  40,  70  pound;  a  ream  of  larger  sheets  of 
the  same  paper  would,  of  course,  be  listed  as  heavier.  The 
best  way  to  determine  the  proper  weight  is  to  have  the 
printer  fold  and  trim  sheets  of  different  weights  into 
^^dummies''  of  the  exact  size  of  the  publication.  The 
question  of  weight  is  often  affected  by  the  presence  of  a 
cover;  much  lighter  paper  may  be  used  if  the  magazine 
has  a  cover  to  give  it  body.  Another  important  consider- 
ation is  the  paper's  transparency;  the  paper  must  be 
heavj  enough  to  prevent  black  type  from  showing  through 
and  to  avoid  '^offset"  on  the  back. 

3.  Strength  of  paper  is  entirely  independent  of  weight 
and  other  qualities.     The  paper  may  be  hea^y  and  thick 


342  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

and  yet  lacking  in  ^^body"  and  tensile  strength;  thick, 
coated  paper  often  tears  easily.  The  test  is  to  tear  it  in 
various  directions  and  to  "rattle"  it  to  see  how  brittle  it  is. 

4.  Color  is  more  important  than  is  nsnallv  supposed, 
since  pure  white  paper  is  rare.  It  is  usually  tinted 
slightly  yellow  or  blue  to  cover  impurities  in  the  pulp. 
It  is  possible,  therefore,  to  choose  a  color  for  the  cover 
and  even  an  ink  that  will  match  the  paper  and  carry  out 
an  attractive  color  scheme. 

5.  Durability  will  not  trouble  the  student  editor  since 
he  is  not  printing  for  posterity.  Paper  varies  greatly  in 
its  ability  to  retain  its  strength  and  color  w4th  age. 

6.  Cost  depends  upon  all  these  considerations  and 
should  be  thought  of  seriously,  since  paper  is  usually  the 
most  costly  part  of  the  publication.  Cost  depends  upon 
the  materials  and  processes  employed  in  papermaking  to 
such  an  extent  that  an  amateur  often  cannot  understand 
the  difference  in  price  of  two  papers.  It  is  therefore 
quite  often  true  that  the  cost  results  from  a  quality  that 
is  not  essential.  In  general,  it  is  not  necessary  to  go 
beyond  medium-priced  paper  in  an  ordinary  publication, 
but  extremely  cheap  paper  will  spoil  the  attractiveness 
produced  by  other  good  qualities. 

Type. — All  the  various  kinds  of  type  used  in  a  publica- 
tion should  be  chosen  by  its  managers.  The  consideration 
includes  body  type,  title  and  headline  type,  display  type 
used  in  advertisements,  etc.  The  brief  discussion  of  type 
on  a  later  page  may  be  used  as  a  starting  point  to  be 
supplemented  by  a  study  of  type  catalogues  and  other 
publications.  Some  printers  show  good  taste  and  are 
glad  to  assist  in  creating  artistic  work;  many  do  not.  It 
is,  after  all,  an  editorial  problem. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  343 

Uniformity  in  typography  is  one  of  the  chief  considera- 
tions. The  same  type  should  be  nsed  for  similar  purposes 
throughout,  and  various  kinds  should  harmonize.  Use  of 
heavy,  black  display  type  with  light-faced  body  type  is 
unattractive;  use  of  extended  type  in  one  place  and  con- 
densed in  another  destroys  harmony.  Mixture  of  antique 
and  old  style  faces  is  inartistic.  All  the  various  faces  and 
sizes  should  be  similar  in  cut  and  decoration.  An  easy 
way  to  obtain  attractive  uniformity  is  to  use  the  same 
series,  or  family  of  type,  throughout,  selecting  various 
sizes  from  this  series  for  various  uses.  If  the  printer  does 
not  have  enough  sizes  in  the  same  family,  the  best  substi- 
tute is  to  study  his  stock  and  to  select  various  kinds  that 
are  similar.  A  type  catalogue  will  be  of  great  assistance 
in  this  study. 

The  use  of  white  space,  instead  of  black  type,  to  obtain 
display  is  a  characteristic  of  modern  printing.  The 
tendency  is  to  use  smaller,  lighter  type,  set  off  with  space, 
rather  than  large,  black  type,  crowded  together.  Some 
printers  have  a  leaning  toward  large  type  in  titles  and 
advertisements ;  the  leaning  may  be  checked  by  a  definite 
rule  limiting  the  size  of  type  allowed  in  the  publication. 

Whether  machine  or  hand  composition  is  to  be  used  de- 
pends entirely  upon  the  printer's  facilities.  If  he  has  a 
machine,  he  will,  of  course,  wish  to  use  it.  (1)  Erom  the 
publisher's  point  of  view,  hand  composition  with  fairly 
new  type  gives  the  most  pleasing  printing,  but  composi- 
tion will  be  slower  and  will  require  more  careful  proof 
correction  (broken,  reversed,  and  wrong  font  letters  will 
be  frequent).  (2)  Monotype  composition  excels  hand 
composition  in  many  respects,  without  its  defects,  but 
comparatively   few   small   printers   own   these   machines. 


344  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

(3)  Linotype  composition  will  prove  the  most  rapid  and 
will  be  entirely  satisfactory  if  the  machine  is  in  good 
condition;  the  chief  obstacles  are  the  small  range  of  type 
faces,  the  difficulty  of  proof  correction  (each  change  re- 
quires the  resetting  of  an  entire  line),  and  imperfect 
alignment.  Before  bargaining  for  linotype  composition, 
it  is  well  to  examine  a  sample  of  work  done  on  the 
printer's  machine.  Linotype  composition  will  probably 
prove  most  satisfactory  in  a  publication  of  newspaper 
form,  while  hand  or  monotype  composition,  if  available, 
will  be  better  in  the  magazine  form. 

Once  the  various  kinds  of  type  are  selected,  the  copy- 
readers  should  learn  their  names  and  sizes  so  that  they 
may  place  complete  type  specifications  on  each  piece  of 
copy  (see  page  376).  Other  typographical  considerations 
must  be  discussed  on  the  basis  of  the  publication's  form. 

1.  Magazine  Form. — Since  one  of  the  chief  advantages 
of  this  form  is  possibility  of  artistic  typogra23hical 
make-up,  many  type  variations  are  possible. 

(a)  Size  of  type  page.  After  the  page  size  has  been 
determined,  the  measurement  of  the  type  page  must  be 
fixed  with  regard  to  margins  for  generous  margins  give 
richness.  The  smallest  margin  that  looks  well  is  %  to 
%  iiich ;  from  that  it  may  range  up  to  II4  inches. 

(h)  Page  diagram.  The  easiest  way  to  determine  the 
type  page  measurements  is  to  draw  a  diagram  of  it  on  a 
sheet  of  paper  trimmed  to  the  size  of  the  finished  page. 
A  rectangle  drawn  on  this  sheet,  allowing  the  desired 
margin,  will  show  the  type  page's  size.  Other  vertical 
lines  set  in  pairs,  ^A  inch  apart,  will  give  the  width  of 
columns.  Measurements  in  inches,  taken  with  a  rule, 
must  be  translated  into  printer's  measurements:   to  trans- 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  345 

late  column  widths  into  ems  pica,  multiply  tlie  number 
of  inches  hj  6,  since  there  are  six  ems  pica  in  an  inch; 
the  number  of  lines  depends  upon  the  size  of  type  and  is 
worked  out  by  the  point  system  (see  page  376).  For 
example,  the  measurements  of  a  type  page  4%  inches 
wide  by  7  inches  long  would  be  worked  out  thus:  4% 
(inches)  X  6  (ems  per  inch)  equals  a  column  width  of 
27  ems  pica.  If  the  type  is  12-point:  7  (inches)  X  6 
(number  of  lines  of  12-point  in  an  inch)  equals  42  lines. 
In  these  dimensions  space  should  be  left  for  the  folio 
head  at  the  top. 

(c)  Size  of  body  type.  Column  width  governs  to 
a  large  extent  the  size  of  body  type.  Large  type  should 
not  be  set  in  narrow  columns,  because  this  results  in  the 
breaking  of  many  words  at  the  ends  of  lines;  small  type 
is  hard  to  read  in  wide  columns.  With  average  body  type 
of  various  sizes,  the  maximum  and  minimum  colunm 
widths  vary  in  a  general  way  as  follows:  7-  and  8-point 
type,  12  to  18  ems  pica  (2  to  3  inches)  ;  9-point  type, 
15  to  21  ems  pica  (2%  to  31/0  inches)  ;  10-  to  11-point 
21  to  27  ems  (3%  to  4%  inches).  Body  type  in  such 
a  publication  would  probably  not  be  smaller  than  S-point 
or  larger  than  11-point.  If  the  columns  are  narrow,  the 
best  would  be  9-point;  if  they  are  wide,  10-point  is  best. 
The  tendency  nowadays  is  to  use  smaller  type  wdth  much 
white  space  between  lines.  This  may  be  obtained  by 
placing  leads  between  lines,  or  by  using  small  type  on 
larger  body,  such  as  9-point  on  10-point  body  or  10-point 
on  12-point  body  (called  10/12  point). 

(d)  Face  of  body  type.  The  commonest  face — the 
face  that  will  probably  be  necessary  if  the  matter  is  set 
on  a  linotype — is  roman.     This  varies  in  design,  however, 


346  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

and  should  be  suited  to  tlie  paper;  if  it  is  very  sharp,  it 
requires  hard,  smooth  paper,  but,  if  it  is  blacker,  the 
paper  should  be  soft.  If  set  on  a  monotype  or  by  hand 
in  a  shop  which  has  a  large  assortment,  it  will  be  possible 
to  obtain  a  more  attractive  face.  In  selecting,  however, 
it  is  well  to  avoid  very  black  type  and  very  extended 
type,  since  the  first  will  cause  trouble  in  press  work  and 
the  second  will  waste  space. 

(e)  Display  type.  In  titles  and  headings  two  quali- 
ties to  be  considered  first  are  uniformity  and  relation  to 
body  type.  For  these  display  lines  it  is  well  to  select 
a  single  series  of  the  same  general  design  as  the  body  type 
and  to  use  its  various  sizes  throughout.  The  editors 
should  design  three  or  four  standard  headings  for  various 
purposes,  all  of  the  same  type  in  various  sizes,  and  insist 
that  this  schedule  be  followed.  In  such  design  it  is  well 
to  keep  to  the  smaller  sizes  (12-  to  36-point)  and  to  avoid 
very  black  type,  since  it  will  increase  the  contrast.  It  is 
necessary,  also,  to  specify  whether  titles  are  to  be  set 
entirely  in  capital  letters. 

The  folio  head,  which  includes  the  page  number  and 
is  repeated  at  the  top  of  each  page,  must  also  be  chosen. 
Capital  letters  of  the  body  type  make  a  good  folio  head. 
Rules  may  be  used  above  or  below. 

The  author's  signature  should  be  uniform.  If  it  is 
placed  at  an  article's  head,  it  may  be  set  in  small  black- 
face letters.  If  at  the  end,  small  capitals  of  the  body 
type  look  well.  All  of  these  details  should  be  specified  in 
advance. 

2.  Newspaper  Form. — Here  less  typographical  artistry 
is  possible ;  various  usages  are  more  or  less  fixed. 

(a)   Size  and  face  of  body  type.     Since  columns  will 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  347 

not  be  less  than  12  ems  pica  or  more  tlian  15  ems  pica  in 
width,  the  best  size  will  be  8-  or  9-point,  with  preference 
given  to  the  smaller  type.  In  fact,  8-point  leaded  or  on 
a  9-point  body  would  be  attractive.  Whether  set  on  lino- 
type or  by  hand,  plain  roman  type  is  best ;  decorative  type 
will  be  out  of  place. 

(h)  Display  in  body  type.  A  limited  amount  of  dis- 
play to  emphasize  certain  articles  or  certain  parts  of 
articles  may  be  obtained,  whether  or  not  the  matter  is  set 
on  a  linotype.  The  methods  of  display  easily  available 
are:  (1)  to  set  matter  entirely  in  capital  letters;  (2)  in 
small  capitals;  (3)  in  bold-face  type  (larger  type  or  long 
lines  across  two  columns — ^'double  measure'^ — involves 
the  use  of  another  machine  or  hand  work)  ;  (4)  to  lead 
between  lines  of  type;  and  (5)  to  indent  each  line  so  that 
there  is  a  strip  of  white  space  between  the  type  matter  and 
the  column  rule  on  one  or  both  sides.  Matter  may  also 
be  set  in  boxes,  within  borders  made  of  rules  or  decorative 
figures.  Some  display  of  this  sort  is  pleasing  but  too 
much  of  it  sacrifices  dignity. 

(c)  Headlines.  To  select  type  and  form  of  headlines 
it  will  be  well  to  study  other  newspapers  to  learn  how  they 
get  pleasing  effects.  It  would  seem  wise  for  a  school 
paper  to  adopt  a  headline  much  like  the  usual  newspaper 
headline,  but,  since  the  paper  is  smaller,  the  imitation 
should  accordingly  be  smaller.  There  is  danger  that  the 
headline  will  fill  more  valuable  space  than  it  is  worth. 
Care  should  be  taken  not  to  select  type  so  black  that  it 
makes  too  strong  a  contrast.  Headline  type  should  also 
be  fairly  small — ^not  more  than  36-point  and  preferably 
less  than  24-point — and  the  number  of  decks  should  be 
limited  to  two,  or,  at  most,  three.     A  condensed  letter 


348  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

will  be  best  for  the  top  deck  to  allow  a  generous  number 
of  letters  per  line.  The  editors  should  look  over  the 
printer's  supply  carefully  to  find  the  best  type,  and,  if 
the  printer  has  a  linotype  for  headline  type,  it  will  be 
well  to  use  that. 

The  easiest  way  to  obtain  uniformity  and  s^inmetry  in 
headlines  is  to  make  up  a  schedule  sheet  containing  model 
headlines  for  various  uses.  The  printer  may  set  up  the 
models  and  take  enough  proofs  to  supply  each  editor  and 
copy  reader.  If  the  various  models  are  numbered,  type 
and  form  may  be  specified  by  the  proper  number  placed 
beside  the  headline  copy.  The  headlines  needed  will  be: 
(1)  large  headline  for  the  top  of  the  important  columns 
on  the  front  page;  (2)  smaller  top-of-column  headline  for 
other  pages;  (3)  one  or  two  smaller  headlines  for  other 
positions;  (4)  a  two-column  headline;  and,  perhaps,  (5) 
a  fancy  headline  for  special  uses.  The  schedule  should 
also  contain  models  of  ^'jump  headlines"  to  be  used  over 
second  parts  of  stories  broken  over  from  the  front  page 
of  the  paper. 

Display  type  also  includes  a  model  for  subheads  used  to 
break  up  long  articles,  heading  for  editorials,  typography 
of  the  editorial  heading,  and  various  other  items,  such  as 
captions  and  overlines  for  pictures.  The  editors  must 
decide  whether  to  use  column  rules  or  leave  a  strip  of 
white  space.  They  must  choose  the  kind  of  cut-off  rule 
and  end  dash  to  be  used  between  articles,  and  decide 
whether  to  use  dashes  or  asterisks  between  short  items 
without  headings.  To  decide  these  things  in  advance  in- 
sures uniformity. 

Illustrations. — Whether  the  publication  is  in  magazine 
or  newspaper  form,  the  illustration  problem  is  the  same. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  349 

There  are  two  kinds  of  illustrations  available  for  such  a 
publication — the  line  engraving  and  the  half-tone.  Both 
are  made  by  a  photographic  process  similar  to  the  taking, 
developing,  and  printing  of  photographs. 

The  line  engraving,  or  zinc  etching,  is  used  to  repro- 
duce drawings  and  other  pictures  made  up  of  plain  black 
lines  on  white  surfaces,  or  the  reverse.  It  is  made  by 
photographing  the  drawing  in  a  camera  and  then  "print- 
ing" the  picture  on  a  plate  of  sensitized  metal,  usually 
zinc,  as  a  photograph  is  printed  on  sensitized  paper.  The 
plate  thus  bears  the  lines  of  the  picture  raised  on  its  sur- 
face, and  prints  in  black  and  white,  without  shading  or 
intermediate  tones. 

The  half-tone  is  a  modification  of  this  process  and  is 
designed  to  obtain  tones  and  shading  so  as  to  reproduce 
photographs,  wash  drawings,  and  other  pictures  that  are 
not  solid  masses  of  black  and  white.  The  process  of 
making  the  half-tone  is  similar  to  that  of  the  line  engrav- 
ing except  that  the  picture  is  photographed  through  a 
screen  in  the  engraver's  camera  to  break  up  the  picture 
into  thousands  of  small  dots.  The  varying  size  of  the  dots 
causes  the  black  to  blend  with  the  white  and  produce 
tones.  The  half-tone  may  be  made  with  varying  numbers 
of  dots,  from  60  to  200  lines  per  inch,  depending  upon 
the  fineness  of  the  screen.  Coarse  half-tones  (100  lines 
or  less)  are  usually  made  of  zinc;  finer  half-tones  are 
made  of  copper. 

The  line  engraving  prints  well  on  almost  any  kind  of 
paper,  but  it  reproduces  only  drawings  and  similar  illusr 
trations.  Half-tones  require,  in  general,  smoother,  harder 
paper.  Coarse  zinc  half-tones  print  fairly  well  on  news- 
paper stock,  but  finer  half-tones  and  practically  all  copper 


350  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

half-tones  require  smooth,  hard  paper.  This  must  be 
considered  in  the  original  selection  of  paper. 

Both  kinds  of  engravings,  or  ''cuts,"  are  sold  by  the 
square  inch,  with  a  minimum  price  for  one  cut.  They 
may  be  made  in  any  size,  since  the  picture  may  be  reduced 
or  enlarged.  In  ordering  it  is  customary  to  specify  only 
the  width  (such  a  w^idth  as  will  fit  the  columns)  and 
to  indicate  on  the  picture  how  much  of  it  is  to  appear  in 
the  cut.  In  half-tones  it  is  necessary  to  specify  the  fine- 
ness of  the  screen  and  the  finish  of  the  cut's  edges: 
square,  oval,  outline  (with  fine  line  border),  or  vignette 
(shading  away  at  the  edges).  Sometimes  the  order  in- 
cludes "retouching"  of  photographs,  ''tooling"  on  plates 
to  increase  contrast,  or  special  border,  and  these  are 
charged  as  extras.  For  line  cuts  the  engraver  should  be 
supplied  with  clear-cut  "copy" — that  is,  black  lines  on 
clean,  white  paper.  For  half-tones  he  should  be  supplied 
with  clear-cut  photographs,  containing  good  contrast;  un- 
mounted, glossy  photographic  prints  are  best.  A  combina- 
tion of  photographs  and  drawings  requires  separate  cuts 
tacked  on  the  same  base  to  form  a  layout.  Captions  and 
overlines  of  type  are  set  above  or  below  the  cut,  or  may 
be  set  in  mortise  holes  in  the  cut ;  in  line  drawings  letters 
may  be  used  on  the  original  drawing. 

Besides  paper  requirements,  the  editor  must  consider 
other  subjects  in  preparing  for  illustrations.  He  should 
decide  how  many  cuts  to  allow  on  any  page  and  their  size. 
If  the  cuts  are  made  in  widths  that  match  the  columns 
(one,  two,  or  more  columns  wide),  make-up  is  simple; 
if,  however,  they  are  in  odd  sizes,  the  type  matter  must 
"run  around"  them  or  they  must  be  left  in  the  midst  of 
l^arge  white  spaces.    It  is  well  to  plan  the  entire  make-up 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  351 

of  an  issue,  cuts  and  all,  before  any  of  the  type  is  set  or 
the  cuts  ordered. 

The  Cover. — The  magazine  form  of  publication  will 
usually  be  improved  by  a  cover  of  heavier  paper.  If  no 
cover  is  added  and  the  front  page  is  printed  on  the  same 
paper  and  folded  in  with  the  other  pages,  the  paper  must 
be  correspondingly  heavier.  Without  a  cover  bad  folding 
and  bad  press  work  show  on  the  outside  of  the  publication. 
If  no  cover  is  used,  any  form  of  a  border  on  the  outside 
should  be  avoided  for  it  will  accentuate  bad  folding.  The 
amount  of  printed  matter  on  the  cover  should  be  reduced 
to  a  minimum  and  made  up  of  fairly  small  type.  It 
should  include  the  publication's  name,  date,  volume  and 
series  number,  and  perhaps  a  special  announcement  of 
contents.  If  it  is  to  remain  the  same  through  various 
numbers,  to  have  an  electrotype  or  stereotype  made  of  it 
will  avoid  typographical  errors;  a  mortise  may  be  cut  in 
the  plate  for  date,  numbers,  etc.  Some  cost  will  be  saved 
if  inside  pages  of  the  cover  are  left  blank  to  avoid  an 
extra  run  on  the  press. 

The  Title  Page. — Every  publication  must  have  some- 
where among  its  pages  a  title  heading  detailing  the  pub- 
lication's ownership.  Magazines  frequently  put  this 
form  on  a  title,  or  table  of  contents  page.  Newspapers 
place  it  at  the  head  of  the  editorial  page. 

In  the  student  publication  of  magazine  form,  if  the 
editorials  are  given  a  special  section  and  emphasized,  the 
top  of  the  first  column  of  this  page  would  be  the  best 
position.  If  editorials  are  not  emphasized,  the  top  of  the 
first  page  inside  the  cover  is  a  good  position.  If  pages 
are  small,  the  first  might  be  devoted  to  this  material  and 
a  table  of  contents,  but  reading  matter  must  begin  on  a 


352  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

right-hand  page  and  the  editor  must  provide  something 
to  fill  page  2  (the  back  of  the  title  page).  In  the  news- 
paper form  the  best  position  is  the  top  of  the  first  editorial 
column,  which  is  usually  the  first  column  on  a  left-hand 
page  near  the  middle  of  the  paper. 

The  title  heading  should  bear  the  publication's  name, 
publisher's  name,  office  of  publication,  number  of  issues 
per  year,  price  per  issue  and  per  year,  volume  and  series 
number,  and  date  of  th^  issue.  Some  publications  place 
only  the  names  of  business  officers  here  but  the  student 
publication  will  probably  list  its  staff.  If  entered  under 
the  second-class  postal  rate,  a  proper  notice  should  appear 
here,  as  well  as  other  announcements  required  by  postal 
law  (consult  the  postmaster  for  special  conditions).  Ad- 
vertising rates  may  be  listed,  but  this  is  not  necessary. 
The  heading  should  be  set  in  small  type  in  small  space. 

Advertisements. — The  best  policy  is  to  place  adver- 
tisements as  near  the  last  pages  as  possible,  but  few  pub- 
lishers are  able  to  resist  the  advertiser's  desire  to  be  near 
reading  matter.  Some  scheme  must  be  devised  to  please 
advertisers  without  sacrificing  beautv. 

In  the  magazine  form  it  is  well  to  place  all  advertise- 
ments next  to  reading  matter  but  to  keep  them  back  of  the 
center  of  the  magazine  and  to  devote  to  ads  not  more  than 
twenty-five  or  thirty-five  per  cent  of  the  total  space.  If 
pages  are  small  and  space  is  sold  by  pages  and  part  pages, 
a  good  plan  is  to  place  all  ads  on  left-hand  pages  back  of 
the  center,  and  use  right-hand  pages  for  reading  matter. 
If  pages  are  large  and  space  is  sold  by  columns,  it  is  well 
to  sell  one  column  on  each  page  back  of  the  center. 
Whether  to  sell  cover  pages  is  a  problem;  the  extra  rates 
that  may  be  obtained  for  them  hardly  make  up  for  the 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  353 

cost  of  extra  press  work,  and  it  is  sometimes  felt  that 
they  injure  the  publication's  appearance. 

In  the  newspaper  form  it  is  well  to  keep  the  first  page, 
and  perhaps  the  second,  free  of  advertisements.  It  is 
wise,  also,  to  have  a  rule  limiting  the  amount  of  advertis- 
ing in  an  issue;  that  is,  never  to  allow  ads  to  occupy 
more  than  thirty-five  or  forty  per  cent  of  the  entire  space 
in  the  paper.  On  pages  that  carry  ads  a  systematic 
arrangement  should  be  established.  One  method  is  to 
place  all  ads  in  the  outside  columns  and  to  devote  central 
columns  to  text.  Another  is  to  keep  all  advertisements 
on  one  side  of  the  page.  Neither  of  these  allows,  however, 
for  wide  ads.  A  system  suited  to  such  ads  is  called  "the 
pyramid  page" ;  it  consists  in  piling  the  ads  along  one  side 
with  the  widest  at  the  bottom  and  the  narrowest  on  top 
so  that  the  result  is  a  pyramid  of  advertisements  resting 
against  one  margin.  Any  of  the  systems  is  good  if  fol- 
lowed consistently.  Make-up  of  these  pages  will  be  simpli- 
fied if  the  management  determines  to  maintain  advertising 
rates  so  high  as  to  discourage  large  ads.  Space  in  the 
newspaper  should  be  considered  too  valuable  to  be  used  for 
posters. 

Typography. — It  is  well  for  the  student  publication, 
whatever  its  form,  to  join  the  modern  crusade  against 
great  display  in  advertisements.  More  and  more  pub-, 
lishers  are  refusing  to  use  large  black  type  or  cuts  in  ads. 
The  management  should  set  a  definite  limit  upon  the 
size  and  blackness  of  display  type;  perhaps  it  should 
refuse  the  use  in  ads  of  type  larger  or  blacker  than  the 
type  used  in  headlines.  The  rule  is  devised,  partly  to 
restrain  the  advertiser,  and  partly  to  check  a  printer  who 
loves  display  type.     The  publication's  make-up  will  be 


354  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

improved  if  the  same  style  of  type  is  used  throiiglioiit  its 
ads — preferably  the  type  used  in  its  reading  matter  and 
headlines.  Such  a  plan  will  result  in  pleasing  uniformity. 
The  same  attractive  effect  may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of 
the  same  kind  of  border  around  all  ads  and  by  a  limit  on 
the  size  and  blackness  of  cuts.  It  is  seldom  that  the 
advertiser  will  object,  and,  when  he  does,  he  can  usually 
be  convinced  after  seeing  a  proof  of  his  ad  set  up  accord- 
ing to  office  rules. 

Dummy  Model. — After  the  planning  of  the  publica- 
tion's make-up  has  been  completed,  its  application  will  be 
facilitated  if  the  ideas  are  embodied  in  a  ^'dummy  model." 
One  dummy  may  be  attached  to  the  printer's  contract, 
like  the  drawings  that  an  architect  attaches  to  a  building 
contract,  and  another  may  be  used  by  the  editorial  staff. 
The  dummy  model  is  made  by  binding  together  a  number 
of  sheets,  corresponding  with  the  publication's  size,  each 
trimmed  to  the  exact  size  of  a  page ;  the  printer  will  fold, 
bind,  and  trim  a  dummy  of  the  paper  selected  for  this 
purpose.  On  a  few  of  the  pages  are  drawn  the  outline  of 
the  type  page,  the  column  divisions,  and  the  space  to  be 
allotted  to  folio  head  and  other  display  matter,  with 
dimensions  indicated  in  ems  pica  and  number  of  lines. 
The  size  and  kind  of  type  and  other  specifications  also 
appear.  Advertising  pages  are  treated  in  the  same  way. 
Somewhere  among  the  various  pages  are  drawings  and 
specifications  showing  the  exact  nature  of  the  various 
headlines.  The  editorial  page  heading  and  other  special 
material  are  laid  out  in  detail.  The  completed  dummy  is 
not  merely  a  working  model  of  the  publication,  but  it  also 
contains  an  estimate  of  the  number  of  words  per  column 
and  per  page  as  well  as  the  number  of  letters  in  display 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  355 

lines.     It  will  then  be  of  great  use  in  the  laying  out  of 
editorial  make-up. 

IV.     Editorial  Short-Cuts 

Article  Leng-th.— The  editorial  staff  will  soon  learn  to 
deal  with  manuscript  as  a  matter  of  so  many  words  and 
so  many  printed  lines;  articles  will  be  estimated  on  the 
basis  of  the  amount  of  space  they  fill.  To  facilitate  pre- 
paring the  manuscript  and  adapting  it  to  make-up,  it  is 
well  to  estimate  the  most  desirable  lengths  for  articles 
for  various  positions  and  to  specify  the  number  of  words 
required.  The  writers  will  then  learn  to  write,  not  a 
"short  article,"  but  a  ''200-word  article"  or  a  ''1500- 
word  article."  Selection  of  the  various  lengths  will  be 
based  upon  the  number  of  pages  that  the  subject  should 
fill  and  the  number  of  words  that  will  bring  the  headings 
into  the  proper  positions. 

Copy. — All  copy  for  the  publication  should  be  prepared 
in  accordance  with  suggestions  on  page  367.  It  should  be 
typewritten  so  that  mistakes  will  be  avoided  in  the  print- 
ing office  and  so  that  its  leng-th  may  be  easily  estimated. 
Before  the  copy  is  sent  to  the  printer,  it  should  be  edited 
thoroughly  in  accordance  with  suggestions  on  page  369 ; 
the  attempts  of  some  publishers  to  edit  when  they  read 
proof  result  in  large  correction  bills.  Every  article  and 
each  separate  piece  of  copy  should  contain  a  catch-line 
and  type  specifications  as  suggested  on  page  376 ;  the  type 
directions  should  include  size  and  kind  of  type,  col- 
umn width,  and  special  directions;  each  heading  should 
have  attached  the  schedule  number  of  the  headline  or  exact 
type  directions.  Such  marks  should  be  enclosed  in  circles 
at  the  head  of  the  first  page  or  in  the  margin  beside  the 


356 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


material  concerned.  If  underscoring  appears,  the  editor 
should  specify  whether  this  means  italic  or  bold  face  type. 
Tabulated  material  should  be  accompanied  by  a  diagram. 
Care  in  these  things  will  avoid  much  trouble  in  the  print- 
ing office. 

Proof. — When  the  copy  is  in  type,  the  printer  will 
supply  galley  proof  which  should  be  read  carefully  with 
a  copyholder  and  corrected  with  the  marks  described  on 
page  392.  If  the  copy  is  set  on  a  linotype  machine,  a 
revise,  or  second,  proof,  must  be  read  to  catch  errors  made 
in  resetting  corrected  lines.  In  other  copy  a  revise  is 
hardly  necessary.  After  the  type  has  been  revised  in 
accordance  with  proof  corrections,  the  printer  will  supply 
two  galley  proofs  to  be  used  in  making  a  page  dummy,  to 
be  described  later.  The  last  proof  will  be  a  page  proof 
of  all  pages  as  made  up  for  publication. 

Copy  Record. — If  the  magazine  is  large  or  frequent  in 
appearance,  the  managing  editor  will  need  to  keep  a  copy 
record  so  that  he  can  tell  in  what  stage  each  article  and 
item  is  at  any  time.  The  record  may  be  kept  in  different 
ways;  the  following  is  suggestive: 


Name  uf  Article 

Length  in 

Number  of 

Words 

Copy 
Received 

Copy 
Sr,it  to 
Printer 

First 

Proof 

Returned 

Revised 

Proof 

Received 

Length 

in  Type 

Lines 

Baker's  Art  icle .  .  . 

Exchanges 

Editorials 

2,500 

800 

1,200 

April  4 
April  3 
April  7 

April   4 
April   4 
April  10 

April   7 
April  7 
April  12 

April  10 
April  10 
April  15 

250 

80 

120 

If  pictures  are  used,  entries  should  tell  when  the  copy  was 
sent  to  the  engraver  and  when  the  cut  was  finished.  The 
value  of  such  a  memorandum  in  keeping  track  of  details 
and  checking  delays  is  large. 


MANAGEMENT   OF   STUDENT   PUBLICATIONS  357 

Schedule  of  Dates. — Whatever  the  frequency  of  issue, 
the  editorial  staff  will  need  a  definite  schedule  to  follow, 
if  issues  are  to  appear  on  time.  The  schedule  will  depend 
on  the  nature  of  the  work  and  the  time  required  by  the 
printer,  but  once  it  is  fixed  it  should  be  followed  rigor- 
ously. A  suggestive  schedule  for  a  monthly  publication 
might  be  as  follows  (the  dates  are  final  dates)  : 


First  copy  to  printer 

8th, 

preceding 

month. 

Last  copy  to  printer 

loth. 

'^• 

All  proof  returned  to  printer . . 

18th, 

a 

Last  advertising  copy  to  printer 

18th, 

a 

Page  dummy  ready 

20th, 

i( 

Advertising  proof  sent  for  0.  K. 

20th, 

i( 

Advertising  forms  close 

26th, 

a 

Page  proofs  returned 

26th, 

a 

All  forms  closed 

28th, 

a 

Publication  ready   

1st  of  month. 

Hold-over — Arrangements  should  be  made  with  the 
printer  to  enable  the  editorial  staff  to  set  in  type  slightly 
more  material  than  is  needed  so  that,  after  each  issue, 
there  will  be  some  held  over  in  galley  form.  This  will 
furnish  material  for  emergencies  and  allow  elasticity  for 
make-up.  After  each  issue  the  printer  should  gather 
this  left-over  material  into  galleys  and  send  proofs  to  the 
managing  editor,  perhaps  on  colored  paper.  Some  of 
this  material  will  consist  of  handy  fillers  for  emergencies. 

Check-up  Systems. — Besides  his  copy  record  and  other 
devices  to  be  mentioned  later,  the  managing  editor  will 
need  to  maintain  a  systematic  desk  to  keep  in  hand  all  the 
various  details.     He  will  need:    (1)   a  basket  or  drawer 


358  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

for  copy  that  he  is  holding  for  future  use;  (2)  one  for 
copy  ready  for  the  printer;  (3)  one  for  proof  in  the 
handling;  (4)  one  for  proof  of  material  ready  for  use; 
(5)  one  for  proofs  of  illustrations  ready  for  use;  (6)  one 
for  each  department,  etc.  The  more  systematic  he  is,  the 
easier  his  work  will  be. 

DiagTam  of  Make-up. — The  task  of  estimating  the 
amount  of  copy  and  proof  on  hand  and  matching  it  with 
space  to  be  filled  is  a  bewildering  one;  the  task  of  fitting 
together  various  articles  into  the  make-up  of  pages  is  more 
bewildering.  One  of  the  easiest  ways  of  doing  the  two 
tasks  and  checking  up  all  details  is  to  prepare  in  advance 
a  diagram  of  the  make-up  and  to  fit  things  into  it.  The 
following  are  suggestive  methods: 

1.  Magazine  Form. — In  this  diagram  (page  359),  each 
page  of  the  publication  is  represented  by  an  oblong  space. 
The  oblongs  in  the  left-hand  column  represent  left-hand 
pages  and  vice  versa.  Each  page  is  numbered  according 
to  its  position,  and  the  pages  are  arranged  so  that  opposing 
pages  face  each  other  on  the  diagram;  thus,  page  2  is 
opposite  page  3,  page  16  is  opposite  page  17,  but  pages 
1  and  32  stand  out  alone,  since  they  do  not  face  other 
pages.  After  the  diagram  has  been  drawn,  the  next  step 
is  to  locate  in  it  the  various  parts  that  are  fixed,  such  as 
title  heading,  editorials,  and  advertisements.  As  each 
article,  or  item,  reaches  the  stage  of  revise  proof  so  that 
its  length  is  known,  it  is  fitted  into  position ;  the  space 
it  is  to  fill  is  figured  in  number  of  lines.  The  preliminary 
juggling  of  articles  necessary  to  fit  make-up  can  thus  be 
accomplished  easily,  and  the  finished  diagram  is  the  basis 
of  the  page  dummy  to  be  made  later.  This  method  is 
often  used  in  magazine  ofiices. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  359 


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DIAGRAM   OF    MAGAZINE    FORM    MAKE-UP 


2.  Newspaper  Form. — Each  page  is  a  large  rectangle 
subdivided  into  columns  (page  360).  The  kinds  of  head- 
lines needed  for  symmetry  are  indicated  by  numbers  from 
the  headline  schedule.  The  diagram  is  made  up  like  the 
booklet  diagram,  except  that  the  material  is  estimated  in 
length  in  inches,  and  the  diagram  is  not  necessarily  made 


360  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

up  with  so  much  care.  Newspaper  editors  frequently  use 
such  a  diagram  in  laving  out  pages. 

Making  the  Page  Dummy. — After  all  copy  is  in  type 
and  the  managing  editor  has  received  proofs,  he  makes 
up  a  page  dummy  to  guide  the  printer  in  making  up  page 
forms.  Some  editors  allow  the  printer  to  make  up  with 
only  a  few  directions  to  guide  him;  others  go  to  the  shop 
and  direct  the  work;  the  best  method  is  to  make  a  page 
dummy. 

1.  Magazine  Form. — The  task  is  cutting  up  galley 
proofs  and  fitting  them  together.  It  is  done  by  binding 
together  a  number  of  sheets,  corresponding  with  the  pub- 
lication's size,  numbering  them,  and  pasting  the  proof  in 
position  upon  them.  (To  facilitate  rapid  paging  in  the 
printing  office,  use  a  separate  sheet  for  each  page,  rather 
than  pasting  on  both  sides  of  each  sheet.)  Sheets  should 
be  large  enough  to  accommodate  directions  and  corrections 
in  the  margin.  Dummying  is  easy  if  the  editor  has  pre- 
viously made  a  diagram;  otherwise  it  is  a  problem  of 
cutting  and  fitting.  If  the  publication  is  large,  it  is  well 
to  have  the  galleys  numbered  and  to  write  the  galley  num- 
ber on  the  face  of  each  piece  of  proof  to  assist  the  printer 
in  finding  it.  If  much  held-over  material  is  used  it  should 
be  marked  ''hold-over/'  or  the  proof  should  be  on  yellow 
paper  to  distinguish  it  from  fresh  material.  Some  of  the 
problems  of  dummying  are  as  follows: 

(a)  Length  of  pages.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have 
each  page  exactly  the  same  length;  this  may  be  accom- 
plished by  counting  the  number  of  lines  or  pasting  on 
pages  of  a  previous  issue.  Space  to  be  left  for  headings, 
tables,  and  other  irregular  material,  may  be  estimated 
from  its  length  on  the  proof. 


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DIAGRAZy:   OF  NEWSPAPER   FORM   MAKE-UP 


362  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

(h)  Position  of  article  headings.  There  are  two 
ways  of  making  up  a  magazine  containing  many  long 
articles.  One  is  to  begin  all  articles  at  the  top  of  a  page 
and  to  leave  the  rest  of  the  last  page  of  the  article  blank 
or  to  put  in  a  short  item  or  verse  as  filler ;  in  such  make-up 
it  is  usual  to  begin  most  articles  on  right-hand  pages. 
This  is  the  more  pleasing  method,  but  is  wasteful  of  space. 
The  other  method  is  to  run  articles  continuously,  allowing 
headings  to  fall  where  they  may,  although  attempting  to 
keep  headings  above  the  middle  of  the  page.  This  is 
more  economical  but  requires  juggling  to  keep  headings 
high  on  pages.  The  two  ideas  involved  in  both  systems 
are  to  obtain  attractive  pages  with  headings  near  the  top 
and  also  to  carry  the  reader  through  so  that  when  he  com- 
pletes one  article  the  heading  of  the  next  is  before  him. 
If  articles  are  long,  editors  frequently  resort  to  ^'breaking 
over"  to  crowd  many  titles  into  the  first  few  pages.  They 
begin  an  article  in  the  front  of  the  book,  continue  it  for 
two  or  four  pages,  then  mark  it  "continued  on  page  17,'^ 
and  complete  it  later.  One  system  is  about  as  good  as 
another,  if  carefully  carried  out,  but  the  editor  will  soon 
discover  the  desirability  of  suiting  article  length  to  the 
size  of  pages. 

(c)  Page  hrealcs.  Some  printers  object  to  part  of 
a  line  (the  beginning  or  end  of  a  paragraph)  at  the  top 
or  bottom  of  a  column.  One  way  to  avoid  this,  while 
keeping  pages  the  same  length,  is  to  use  the  last  lines  of 
paragraphs  as  elastic  points  where  a  line  may  be  gained 
or  saved  through  the  addition  or  omission  of  a  word  or 
two. 

(d)  Illustratioiis.  These  are  indicated  in  the  dummy 
by  proofs  of  the  cuts  pasted  into  position.     If  overlines 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  363 

and  captious  have  not  been  written  before,  they  may  be 
written  in  the  dummy.  If  the  cut  is  of  an  odd  shape  that 
requires  resetting  of  lines  to  run  around  it,  it  is  custom- 
ary to  estimate  the  number  of  words  to  be  used  in  the 
run-around,  clip  off  enough  lines  of  proof,  and  paste  them 
in  vertically  beside  the  cut,  marked  ''Run  around." 

2.  Newspaper  Form. — The  dummy  is  made  up  in  the 
same  way  in  this  form.  In  newspaper  offices  dummies  are 
seldom  used  because  the  make-up  editor  goes  to  the  com- 
posing room  with  proofs  and  diagram  and  directs  the 
printer  personally.  In  the  student  paper,  however,  it  will 
be  wise  to  make  a  dummy.  This  is  done  with  galley  proof 
on  a  large  sheet  of  paper  or  on  a  page  of  a  previous  issue. 
It  is  easier  than  magazine  make-up  because  there  is  more 
elasticity;  space  may  be  taken  up  with  leads.  Various 
problems  are: 

{a)  Symmetry.  Symmetrical  arrangement,  designed 
to  give  a  page  a  pleasing  appearance,  must  be  worked  out 
in  advance  before  headlines  are  set ;  that  is,  the  position 
of  the  principal  articles  must  be  decided  upon.  Study  of 
newspapers  will  show  how  symmetry  is  attained.  If  it  is 
to  be  accomplished  by  alternating  large  and  small  headlines, 
enough  headlines  of  the  various  sizes  must  be  specified  in 
advance.  If  it  is  a  question  of  a  layout  of  one  large  head- 
line on  the  page,  other  headlines  must  be  arranged  so  as 
to  focus  attention  upon  the  one  headline. 

(&)  Subordinate  headlines.  After  the  principal 
articles,  the  headlines  of  which  give  symmetry  to  the  top 
of  the  page,  have  been  arranged,  the  subordinate  head- 
lines below  must  be  placed  in  attractive  positions.  To 
arrange  them  symmetrically  often  involves  cutting  articles 
in  two  and  breaking  over  into  another  column.     If  the 


364  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

editor  does  not  desire  symmetry,  lie  must  taike  care  to 
avoid  placing  headlines  side  by  side  or  in  such  positions 
as  to  result  in  horizontal  or  diagonal  lines  of  display  type 
across  the  page. 

(c)  Xumher  of  headlines.  The  editor  must  decide 
whether  he  desires  few  or  many  headlines  on  a  page ;  this 
will  affect  article  length.  There  is  a  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  which  is  more  desirable.  The  many-headline  front 
page  may  be  obtained  with  long  articles  by  the  breaking 
over  of  many  front  page  articles  into  inside  pages. 

(cZ)  Breah-overs.  Because  of  the  varying  length  of 
articles  it  is  necessary  to  decide  where  to  continue  articles 
that  are  too  long  for  their  positions.  Old-fashioned  news- 
papers answered  this  question  by  continuing  the  article 
at  the  top  of  the  next  column,  but  this  method  destroys 
symmetry.  Other  papers  continue  the  article  below  a  cut- 
off rule  in  the  next  column,  leaving  the  space  above  for  a 
shorter  article.  Other  papers  break  over  all  long  articles 
into  inside  pages,  using  jump-heads  over  the  continuations. 

(e)  Physical  make-up.  Other  considerations  are: 
What  kind  of  a  cut-off'  rule  or  dash  to  use  at  the  end  of 
an  article  ?  Shall  asterisks  or  dashes  be  used  between 
short  items  without  headlines  ?  Shall  fillers  be  used  to 
stop  up  holes?  Shall  articles  be  classified  in  groups  ac- 
cording to  content,  etc.  ?  Little  can  be  said  about  any 
except  that  uniformity  is  much  to  be  desired. 

Page  and  Form  Proofs. — After  the  printer  has  made 
up  a  magazine  in  accordance  with  the  dummy,  he  will 
submit  a  proof  of  each  page,  which  will  furnish  the  last 
chance  to  catch  errors  and  will  give  an  opportunity  to 
check  up  the  care  with  which  paging  has  been  done. 
Some  editors  insist  upon  seeing  a  form  proof  after  the 


MANAGEMENT  OF  STUDENT  PUBLICATIONS  365 

pages  have  been  placed  in  the  forms  ready  for  the  press. 
This  gives  an  opportunity,  after  the  sheet  has  been  folded 
and  trimmed,  to  see  whether  the  pages  are  in  the  proper 
positions  and  right  side  up  and  to  check  the  uniformity  of 
margins.  The  first  sheet  off  the  press  is  usually  the  only 
form  proof  needed.  The  printer  must  take  the  responsi- 
bility for  the  rest  of  the  work  and  the  final  appearance  of 
the  publication. 


CHAPTER  II 
TECHNICAL  PROBLEMS 

All  publication  work,  be  it  the  handling  of  pamphlets, 
books,  newspapers,  magazines,  or  any  other  kind  of 
printed  matter,  brings  with  it  the  necessity  of  dealing 
with  a  printing  office  and  learning  printers'  methods.  It 
is  a  problem  of  mechanics  and  technique.  As  soon  as  the 
writer  becomes  a  publisher,  a  new  field  of  rules  and  prac- 
tices is  opened  up  to  him — rather  he  is  pushed  into  it — 
and,  if  he  is  to  succeed,  he  must  know  the  highways  and 
byways  of  the  field.  It  is  just  at  the  entrance  of  this 
field  that  the  journalistic  highway  branches  off  the  road 
trod  by  the  literary  worker.  The  purely  literary  writer 
is  concerned  only  with  the  mechanics  of  writing.  The 
journalistic  writer  carries  his  writing,  whether  it  is  lit- 
erary or  otherwise,  one  step  further — he  prepares  it  for 
a  printer.  That  is  why  the  literary  writer  calls  his  writ- 
ing "manuscript,"  and  the  journalistic  writer  calls  his 
"copy." 

It  is  to  tell  the  writer  of  manuscripts  how  to  convert  his 
writing  into  printer's  copy  that  this  chapter  is  presented. 
Just  as  soon  as  a  teacher  or  student  undertakes  to  publish 
a  newspaper  or  magazine  or  even  a  yearbook,  he  is  enter- 
ing the  journalistic  field  and  must  learn  to  work  with 
printers.  This  involves  knowledge  of  the  proper  way  to 
prepare  printer's  copy,  the  editing  of  this  copy,  the 
placing  of  guide-lines  and  printer's  directions,  the  writing 

366 


TECHNICAL  PROBLEMS  367 

of  headlines  and  other  display,  and  the  reading  of  proof. 
The  practices  to  be  learned  are  not  exclusively  newspaper 
methods;  they  are  methods  followed  by  magazine  editors, 
book  publishers,  and  all  other  persons  who  direct  printers. 
They  are  practically  the  same  everywhere  in  America, 
because  they  originated  in  the  printing  office  and  are 
learned  by  printers  as  a  part  of  their  apprenticeship. 

I.     Eor:m  of  Copy 

Preparation  of  copy  is  standardized  among  all  journal- 
istic workers.  Certain  definite  practices  apply  in  almost 
all  cases: 

Paper. — The  best  paper  to  use  for  printer's  copy  is  soft, 
unruled  ^^copv  -p^er"  cut  in  sheets  about  8^/2  by  11 
inches.  It  is  desirable  because  it  is  cheap,  its  surface  is 
suitable  for  pencil  or  typewriter,  and  it  has  no  shine  or 
"glare.''  It  may  be  obtained  at  any  printing  office  and 
from  many  stationers. 

Typewrite. — So  far  as  possible,  all  copy  should  be  type- 
written. Otherwise,  it  is  best  to  write  with  a  pencil. 
Pen  manuscript  is  undesirable,  because  the  hand  is  likely 
to  be  small  and  illegible,  and  the  pen  requires  smooth 
paper  that  has  an  objectionable  shine. 

Margins. — Liberal  space  for  corrections  should  be  left 
in  all  copy,  typewritten  or  otherwise.  Typewritten  copy 
should  be  double  or  triple  spaced;  longhand  copy  should 
have  broad  spaces  between  words  and  lines.  A  margin  of 
at  least  1%  inches  should  remain  on  the  left  and  almost 
as  much  on  the  right.  Space  should  be  left  for  the  title 
at  the  top  of  the  first  page,  as  well  as  generous  space  at  the 
top  and  bottom  of  each  page.  It  is  desirable  to  end  each 
page  with  a  paragraph. 


368  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Numbers. — Each  page  should  be  numbered  and  should 
bear  the  writer's  name  or  a  short  designation  of  the  story 
(for  example,  '^ Johnson — 3)  so  that  it  may  not  be  mis- 
placed. The  numbers  should  be  placed  close  up  in  the 
upper  left  corner  of  the  page.  The  writer's  name  should 
occupy  the  upper  left  comer  on  the  first  page.  Some 
mark  should  be  placed  on  the  last  page  to  indicate  that 
the  article  is  complete.  Newspaper  writers  ordinarily 
use  the  marks  "#''  or  ^'30." 

Folding. — Copy  that  is  rolled  or  folded  vertically  is 
difficult  to  handle  in  the  printing  office.  A  good  method 
is  to  fold  it  backw^ard  horizontally  across  the  mfddle 
of  the  sheet  so  that  the  title  and  signature  are  on  top  out- 
side. 

Separate  Sheets. — Each  article  or  item  should  be  placed 
on  a  separate  sheet.  The  foreman  printer  divides  copy 
into  short  ''takes"  to  be  handled  separately,  and  the  writ- 
ing of  articles  continuously  on  a  few  sheets  results  in  con- 
fusion. 

Copy  Marks. — In  longhand  copy  certain  marks  will  in- 
crease legibility.  A  half  circle  around  a  quotation  mark, 
single  or  double  (  ^(^  ,  1;(^  )  shows  their  direction.  Since 
the  letters  u  and  n  are  easily  confused,  it  is  well  to  over- 
score  a  doubtful  n  and  underscore  a  doubtful  u  (thus, 
u,  n).  Proper  names  and  words  that  are  likely  to  be  mis- 
spelled should  be  printed  out. 

Corrections. — Read  over  copy  before  handing  it  in  and 
make  necessary  corrections,  whether  or  not  someone  else 
is  to  edit  it.  Check  all  facts  and  figures  and  verify  names 
and  addresses. 


TECHNICAL  PROBLEMS  369 

IL     Typogkaphical  Style 

Because  of  the  disagreement  among  rhetoricians  in  the 
matter  of  capitalization,  punctuation,  use  of  figures,  and 
other  English  usages,  all  publishing  houses  that  take  pride 
in  their  work,  to  insure  uniformity,  lay  down  arbitrary 
rules  governing  these  questions.  Such  questions  are  re- 
ferred to  as  typographical  style,  and  the  body  of  rules  is 
known  as  office  style.  When  the  rules  are  set  do^vn  in 
printed  form,  they  constitute  a  style  hook,  or  style  sheet. 
Most  magazines  and  many  newspapers  have  such  style 
books. 

In  the  same  way,  it  is  well  for  the  teacher  or  student 
who  manages  a  publication  to  obtain  uniformity  of  style 
by  drawing  up  similar  rules.  The  style  sheet  should  cover 
all  doubtful  questions  of  capitalization,  abbreviation, 
quotation,  use  of  figures,  form  of  dates,  address,  and 
titles.  It  is  wise  to  add  rules  of  punctuation  to  cover 
certain  doubtful  cases.  However  arbitrary  the  rules  may 
be,  they  are  better  than  no  rules,  for  they  will  result  in 
uniformity.  Once  they  are  established,  every  writer, 
editor,  and  proofreader  should  be  required  to  follow  them. 
From  the  point  of  view  of  the  teacher  they  offer  an 
excellent  opportunity  to  enforce  strict  attention  to  minor 
details  and  thus  aid  the  development  of  habits  of  ac- 
curacy. For  the  student  publisher's  convenience,  a  sample 
style  sheet  is  bound  into  this  book  as  Chapter  III,  Part  II. 
Its  mandates  must  not,  however,  be  considered  final,  for 
the  style  sheets  of  no  two  publishers  agree  in  all  respects. 

III.     Copy  Editing 
The  editing  of  copy,   or  copyreading,   is  a  necessary 
step  in  all  publication  work.     Ko  matter  how  well  an 


370  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

article  is  written,  it  is  usually  improved  by  careful  edit- 
ing, and,  even  if  no  attempt  is  made  to  alter  the  article's 
content  or  literary  style,  editing  is  necessary  to  make  it 
conform  to  office  rules  in  typographical  style,  punctuation, 
and  even  grammar.  In  newspaper  offices  the  work  of 
editing  copy  is  done  by  professional  editors,  called  copy- 
readers;  in  magazine  and  book  publishing  houses  the  per- 
sons who  correct  copy  are  called  editors.  In  a  student 
publication  the  editing  should  be  done  by  the  highest 
authority  on  the  staff,  the  most  intelligent,  experienced, 
and  able  person  available.  He  should  carefully  correct 
every  piece  of  manuscript  and  should  then  be  willing  to 
take  the  responsibility  for  its  statements.  This  editing 
must  be  done  when  the  article  is  in  manuscript  form, 
before  it  has  been  sent  to  the  printer,  since  correction  of 
content  in  proof  is  expensive. 

Editing  consists  partly  in  revising  so  that  every  piece 
of  copy  will  conform  in  tone  and  form  with  the  publica- 
tion's policy.  Even  more  than  this,  it  is  rectifying  all 
errors  of  fact,  spelling,  punctuation,  grammar,  typo- 
grapical  style,  and  sentence  structure.  If  the  article  is 
not  well  written,  editing  may  involve  brightening  up  parts 
of  it  and  reorganizing  others  so  that  in  finished  form  it 
shall  be  good.  Above  all,  it  is  revising,  rather  than 
rewriting.  The  editor  carefully  preserves  the  good  in 
what  the  writer  has  prepared,  and  to  this  he  adds 
his  own  ability.  Rarely  docs  he  rewrite  it.  This  fact 
is  emphasized  because  the  first  impulse  is  to  rewrite  a 
bad  article  and  utterly  destroy  the  individuality  of  the 
original  writer.  Such  a  practice  is  bad,  because  the  vary- 
ing personalities  of  many  writers  are  needed  to  give  the 
publication  tone  and  interest. 


TECHNICAL  PROBLEMS  371 

The  only  tool  used  by  the  copyreader  is  a  large  soft 
lead  pencil  with  which  he  may  cross  out  objectionable 
words  and  sentences  and  write  in  corrections.  With  no 
other  equipment  than  that,  any  one  could  successfully 
edit  copy.  But  generations  of  editors  behind  us,  espe- 
cially in  the  newspaper  offices,  have  left  us  a  number  of 
useful  signs  and  abbreviations  which  greatly  facilitate 
the  work.  They  must  be  thought  of  as  aids,  not  as  hard 
and  fast  essentials  of  good  copyreading;  the  work  may 
be  done  just  as  thoroughly  without  them.  Those  given 
below  are  known  to  practically  all  American  printers. 

Certain  things  are  to  be  noted  in  the  use  of  these 
signs  to  make  corrections  clear  to  the  printer.  (1)  The 
signs  are  placed  in  the  body  of  the  copy  at  the  point  where 
the  correction  is  to  be  made.  They  are  not  placed  in  the 
margin  like  proofreading  signs,  for  the  printer  must  read 
all  the  copy  and  does  not  need  a  sign  in  the  margin  to 
attract  his  attention.  To  place  signs  in  the  margin  con- 
fuses corrections.  (2)  The  copyreader  should  make  his 
corrections  with  the  idea  that  the  printer  reads  down  the 
page,  perhaps  with  the  lower  part  of  the  copy  covered  by 
a  marker;  it  is  therefore  well  to  place  corrections  above 
the  line  concerned.  (3)  Because  of  the  printer's  habit 
of  cutting  copy  into  short  '^takes,''  corrections  written 
vertically  in  the  margin  or  far  from  the  point  of  insertion 
hinder  him.     Cut  and  paste. 

All  editing  should  be  done  with  the  greatest  neatness, 
with  enough  run-in  lines  to  guide  the  printer  through  the 
corrections.  The  run-in  line,  which  connects  parts  on 
either  side  of  material  that  is  cut  out,  is  especially  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  printer  from  overlooking  a  stranded  word 
at  the  beginning  or  end  of  a  line.     Care  should  be  taken 


372 


JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


COPYKEADING  SYMBOLS 

Circle  around  a  figure  indicates  that  it  is  to  be 
spelled  out. 

Circle  around  a  number  that  is  spelled  out  specifies 
figures. 

(^ooio^  Jonea  circle  around  complete  word  specifies  abbreviation. 
rprof D  Smith 


IpBo  facto 


.fOlf 


the^man  who 


■S^ 


Circle  around  abbreviated  word  indicates  that  it  is 
to  be  spelled  out. 

Single  line  under  words  specifies  distinctive  type. 
In  book  or  magazine  offices,  single  underscoring 
means  italic  type.  In  newspaper  offices,  it 
usually  means  bold  face. 

Wa\'y  line  under  word   specifies  bold  face  type. 

Two  lines  under  word  or  letter  mean  small 
CAPITAL  letters. 

Three  lines  under  word  or  letter  mean  CAPITAL 
letters. 

Line  through  capital  letter  indicates  that  it  should 
be  a  small  letter. 

Separated  matter  is  drawn  together  with  run-in  line. 

Matter  is  separated  by  oblique  line. 

Circle  or  cross  emphasizes  indistinct  period. 

Half-circles  are  used  when  necessary  to  emphasize 
quotation  marks,  either  single  or  double,  and  to 
show  which  way  they  lean. 

Elements  are  transposed  by  encircling  lines. 
Caret  marks  point  where  insertion  belongs. 

When  indention  is  not  clear,  a  paragraph  begin- 
ning is  marked  by  an  angle. 

The  paragraph  mark  is  usually  employed  to  mark 
a  new  paragraph  where  no  indention  was  used. 


TECHNICAL  PROBLEMS  373 

that  inserted  material  is  written  legibly  and  that  a  caret 
indicates  the  spot  where  it  is  to  be  inserted.  If  the 
inserted  material  is  long,  it  may  be  written  on  a  separate 
sheet  and  labelled  ''Insert  page  3/'  or  whatever  the  case 
may  be;  a  caret  and  the  word  "Insert,"  mark  the  spot. 
A  better  method  is  to  cut  the  copy  and  paste  the  insert 
into  place.  The  paste  pot  is  always  a  valuable  aid  to  the 
copyreader. 

Example  of  Edited  Copy 

Madiaon,  Wls.^Sept.   25j^ — With  a  letiA,   ilqafeiiiiJg'  roar 
that^*ol»ntly  agoaood  IxundredSy fwxa  th»lB  o3^e»pt 
the  large  gas  holder-x»<cttps>i-Bg  -t^o  .o^ttAhwaB^ooJooj-og 
^Main  and  Blount  /treets^ftt  the  gftoplont^f  the  Peoples* 
B.ervlce(^o^^ollaps^d  suddenly  at(si^thi8  morning/ 

endlieslnow/part-teily  sxjinerged  in  water.     The  damage 

'H,    ** — ^        '^  ^ 

will  he  fully^5,OOO^aollagi>v  tut  there  will  he  no  Inter* 

as  ~i 

ruptlon  to  the  service,  the  oompanys  o»Qolluii%  reserve 

equlpmYent  ^ing  Iroediately  hrought  in^o  aotlon  tc^ay* 

Tim   nrinnii   nf  tiTn  mlnTinji  jinn  nt    PI  i  il    iliitiliijil 

^n  daap  aygtary.    Howotcogt    i'fc  wagi  luaarnei  a^M?lng  tha"«MM- 

tng  fiWH/charles  W.    Jackson,  ^fe^  ^cretary  of  the  companyijj 

that  thoj^mmense  quantities  of  snow  on  the  ro*of  of  X'ha  ^^ 

holder^ we >o  pjriaopily  i'qjpuajlLl».  ''The  wl^g-^  of  the 

enow  ca*ie^^) wheels  on  one  side  to  hreak^ 

^-There  was  a  momentary  bl^e  but^when  th^ank  set- 

tied  In  to  the  resevolr  helow  the  firewent  out.  /"The  tank 

was  full,   sald^Jackson^"and  it  was  faotunate  that  an  explo* 

eloD  did  not  scatter  destruction  among  nearby  factories^ 


^ 


374  JOURNALISTIC  WHEIITING 

Errors  to  Look  for  in  Editing. — The  copyreader  may 
make  his  work  easier  by  classifying  in  advance  the  kinds 
of  errors  to  look  for.  The  list  is  probably  endless,  but 
certain  kinds  of  errors  are  more  common  than  others. 
Sections  1 — 4  below,  apply  to  all  kinds  of  copy,  and  Sec- 
tion 5,  though  concerned  mainly  with  newspaper  copy, 
applies  in  many  ways  to  all  writing  of  a  journalistic 
character : 

1.  Errors  of  Expression. — These  include  errors  of 
grammar,  punctuation,  and  spelling.  (Simplified  punc- 
tuation rules  will  be  found  in  Hyde's  ^'Handbook  for 
J^ewspaper  Workers.") 

2.  Errors  of  Typographical  Style. — These  involve  devi- 
ation from  the  style  sheet  used  by  the  publication. 

3.  Irmccuracies. — These  include  misstatement  of  fact, 
misrepresentation  of  facts  through  distortion  or  omission 
of  qualifications,  inaccuracy  in  names,  and  errors  in 
figures. 

4.  Faults  in  Style  and  Diction. — These  involve:  (a) 
use  of  long,  complicated  sentences;  (h)  use  of  unemphatic 
sentence  beginnings;  (c)  failure  to  use  short,  compact 
paragraphs;  (d)  use  of  unemphatic  paragraph  begin- 
nings; (e)  wordiness;  (/)  lack  of  unity  and  coherence; 
(g)  use  of  general  rather  than  concrete  words;  (h)  failure 
to  use  bright,  vivid  verbs;  (i)  lack  of  dignity  of  expres- 
sion as  evidenced  in  slang  and  nicknames;  and  (;*)  trite 
words. 

(A  more  complete  discussion  of  these  subjects  will  be 
found  in  Hyde's  ^'^ewspaper  Editing.") 

Mechanics  of  Editing.  1.  Neatness. — The  editor  should 
not  only  try  to  leave  copy  as  presentable  as  it  was  before 
he  edited   it,  but  should   strive  to  make  it  clearer   and 


TECHNICAL  PROBLEMS  375 

more  legible.  To  this  end  lie  uses  a  large,  soft  lead  pencil, 
the  mark  of  which  may  easily  be  seen  in  poor  light,  crosses 
out  words  with  great  thoroughness,  draws  heavy,  direct 
run-in  lines,  and  bridges  to  connect  separated  parts  and 
guide  the  printer  through  the  corrected  manuscript,  takes 
care  to  write  inserts  legibly,  uses  carets  liberally,  and,  in 
general,  makes  as  few  marks  as  possible.  When  he  finds 
a  fault  to  correct,  he  saves  time  by  stopping  long  enough 
to  see  just  what  is  the  trouble  before  he  puts  a  mark  on 
the  paper;  he  then  makes  the  correction  in  the  quickest 
and  easiest  way. 

2.  Practice  in  Editing. — The  ability  to  see  errors  in 
manuscript  must  be  developed,  for  a  beginner  is  likely  to 
read  rapidly  and  miss  two-thirds  of  the  mistakes  and 
faults  which  he  should  correct.  The  ability  to  edit  well 
and  rapidly  must  also  be  developed  by  practice.  Exer- 
cises that  will  develop  these  special  abilities  are:  (1)  To 
watch  for  errors  of  gTammar,  typographical  style,  punc- 
tuation, and  expression  in  everything  one  reads;  soon 
errors  will  begin  to  appear  in  the  best  printed  matter,  and 
before  long  the  slightest  fault  will  become  as  perceptible 
as  a  blot.  (2)  To  read  copy  word  for  word,  perhaps  mov- 
ing the  lips  to  aid  concentration  and  following  the  copy 
line  after  line,  with  a  card;  this  will  prevent  scanning. 
(3)  To  develop  the  habit  of  seeing  all  kinds  of  faults  by 
looking  for  each  kind  separately.  Read  first  for  errors  in 
punctuation,  second  for  spelling,  third  for  typographical 
style,  fourth  for  grammar,  etc.,  until  the  habit  of  seeing 
all  these  errors  is  developed.  (4)  To  divide  the  process 
of  editing  into  two  logical  parts.  Since  it  is  impossible 
to  do  much  with  the  article's  content  and  arrangement 
until  it  has  been  read  through,  the  first  reading  may  be 


376  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

devoted  to  getting  the  thought  and  correcting  elementary 
errors  (listed  1,  2,  and  3  in  the  list  of  errors  above)  ;  the 
second  reading  may  then  be  devoted  to  changes  in  struc- 
ture and  arrangement.  Such  procedure  will  soon  be  out- 
grown, of  course,  but  it  will  aid  in  cultivating  proper 
habits  of  editing. 

IV.     Type  Directions  and  Guide-Lines 

After  copy  has  been  edited  ready  for  the  printer,  the 
editor  must  place  upon  it  certain  marks  to  indicate  the 
form  in  which  it  is  to  be  set  in  type  and  certain  other 
marks  to  aid  in  keeping  track  of  it.  These  marks  are 
written  at  the  top  of  the  first  page  with  a  ring  around 
them. 

Type  Directions. — Since  it  is  not  wise  to  permit  the 
printer  to  select  any  type  that  he  chooses  out  of  the  large 
assortment  of  styles  and  sizes  at  his  disposal,  the  editor 
must  specify  on  each  piece  of  copy  the  kind  of  type  he 
wishes.  Even  if  the  editor  and  printer  have  previously 
agreed  upon  the  kind  of  type,  it  is  well  to  repeat  the 
specifications  on  each  piece  of  copy  to  prevent  misunder- 
standings. 

1.  Type  Sizes. — To  specify  type  intelligently  requires 
a  broad  knowledge  of  typography,  and  there  is  no  space 
in  this  book  to  go  into  the  subject  comprehensively.  The 
editor  who  wishes  to  learn  type  may  do  so  by  studying  the 
type  catalogues  in  the  printer's  office  and  noting  the  names 
and  sizes  of  the  various  kinds  that  the  printer  has  in  stock. 
As  a  basis  for  such  study  a  few  facts  may  be  noted  here. 
All  type  is  measured  on  the  basis  of  its  vertical  height  as 
it  appears  on  the  printed  page ;  the  measurement  includes 
the  type  face  and  the  white  space  which  separates  lines 


TECHNICAL  PROBLEMS  377 

in  ordinary  matter  set  solid,  without  extra  spacing.  The 
unit  of  measurement  in  modern  type  is  the  point,  which 
is  approximately  V72  of  an  inch.  Various  sizes  are  desig- 
nated in  points  or  multiples  of  that  unit.  Eight-point 
type  is  therefore  V72  or  Vo  of  an  inch  high;  twelve-point 
is  ^V72,  or  ^/q,  of  an  inch  high;  T2-point  type  is  one  inch 
high.  The  type  in  common  use  is  6-,  7-,  8-,  9-,  10-,  12-, 
18-,  24-,  30-,  36-point,  etc. ;  the  commonest  sizes  in  news- 
paper and  magazine  work  are  8-,  9-,  and  10-point.  Cer- 
tain of  these  sizes  are  also  designated  by  names  that  were 
used  before  the  point  system  of  measurement  was  adopted. 
Common  sizes  and  their  names  are  as  follows: 

Point  Size                                       "  Name 

51/2 Agate 

6     Nonpareil 

7     Minion 

8     Brevier 

9     Bourgeois 

10     Long   Primer 

11     Small  Pica 

12 Pica 

2.  Styles  of  Type. — Variation  in  styles  of  type  is 
designated  by  names,  such  as  DeVinne,  Ronaldson, 
Cheltenham,  Bodoni,  Caslon,  Gothic,  and  hundreds  of 
others.  Each  name  designates,  not  one  size,  but  an  entire 
family  made  in  all  common  sizes  and  for  all  uses,  all  of 
the  same  style.  The  various  families  can  be  learned  from 
a  study  of  type  catalogues. 

3.  Column  Width. — Another  measurement  that  the 
printer  must  have  is  the  desired  length  of  the  line,  or 
rather  the  width  of  the  column.  For  this  measurement 
the  letter  em  (II)  of  pica  type  (12-point)  is  used  as  the 


378  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

unit,  because  the  em  is  square.  The  width  of  the  pica 
em  is  therefore  ^Vts,  or  Ve,  of  an  inch.  There  are  thus 
six  ems  pica  in  an  inch  and  it  is  easy  to  translate  column 
widths  from  inches  to  printer's  terms.  Whatever  may  be 
the  size  of  type  used  in  the  column,  the  column  width  is 
designated  in  ems  pica.  Thus  the  specifications  on  a  piece 
of  copy  may  read  ^'8-point  Roman,  13  ems  pica.''  (In 
measuring  quantities  of  type  matter,  especially  in  figuring 
typesetters'  space  rates,  printers  reckon  the  number  of 
ems  of  the  particular  size  in  question;  this  must  not  be 
confused  with  the  use  of  the  em  pica  in  measurement  of 
column  widths.) 

4.  Special  Varieties. — Type  is  also  separated  into  two 
general  classes  on  the  basis  of  its  use :  ( 1 )  Disjplay  type, 
used  in  titles,  advertisements,  and  other  prominent  mat- 
ter, is  ordinarily  in  sizes  of  10-point  or  larger  and  usually 
cannot  be  set  in  the  same  line  with  type  of  the  second 
group.  (2)  Body  type,  used  in  reading  matter,  ordinarily 
ranges  from  6-  to  10-point  and  in  its  commonest  variety 
is  called  rom,an. 

There  are  also  variations  in  the  width  of  letters  of  the 
same  size  and  face,  whether  body  or  display  type.  The 
names  of  the  four  usual  variations,  ranging  from  the 
narrowest  to  the  widest,  are  extra-condensed,  cond&nsed, 
standard,  and  extended;  as  follows: 

EXTRA-CONDENSED  10-POINT  HPE 
CONDENSED  10-POINT  TYPE 
STANDARD  10-POINT  TYPE 
EXTENDED  lO-POINT  TYPE 

In  the  same  font  of  type  there  are  also  several  styles 
of  letters  of  the  same  size  and  face.     Besides  the  usual 


TECHNICAL  PROBLEMS  379 

capitals  and  small  letters  (called  upper  and  lower  case), 
there  are  small  capitalsj  italic  and  hold  face  (or  hlach 
face),  as  follows: 

This  line  is  set  in  ordinary  roman 

This  line  is  set  in  bold-face  roman 

This  line  is  set  in  italics 

This  Line  is  Set  in  Capitals  and  Small  Capitals 

Modern  type  is  frequently  cast  on  a  larger  body  (or 
shoulder)  to  provide  more  space  between  lines.  That  is, 
the  face  that  would  ordinarily  appear  as  8-point  (V72 
inch  high)  is  cast  on  a  body  ®/72  inch  high  so  that  there 
is  ^Az  more  space  between  lines.  This  would  be  called 
'^8-point  on  9-point  body."  Another  common  kind  is  10- 
on  12-point  body. 

5.  Kinds  of  Composition, — The  publisher  must  also 
note  whether  the  type  for  his  printing  is  set  by  hand  or 
on  a  machine.  This  depends,  of  course,  on  the  printer's 
equipment.  In  many  small  offices  all  type  is  set  by  hand, 
one  letter  at  a  time ;  much  special  type  matter  must  be  set 
by  hand  in  the  best-equipped  offices.  When  the  printer 
uses  a  linotype  machine,  the  composing  machine  most 
commonly  used  in  newspaper  plants,  the  type  matter  does 
not  consist  of  individual  pieces  of  type,  but  of  line-slugs, 
or  entire  lines  cast  in  one  piece  with  the  proper  type  faces 
to  suit  the  context.  A  monotype  machine,  on  the  other 
hand,  sets  individual  pieces  of  type,  newly  cast  for  the 
special  purpose.  This  will  be  discussed  more  fully  under 
^'Proofreading.'' 

6.  Other  Expressions,  —  Certain  other  typographical 
terms  are  necessary  in  directions  to  printers.  Type  mat- 
ter, as  it  is  composed,  is  placed  in  long  trays  called  gal- 


380  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

leys.  The  first  proof  is  called  a  galley  proof,  because  it 
is  a  printed  impression  taken  (or  'pulled)  of  the  galley  of 
type  matter.  When  type  is  corrected  according  to  proof- 
reader's corrections,  it  is  said  to  be  revised.  The  process 
of  taking  type  from  galleys  and  placing  it  in  the  forms 
that  make  individual  pages  is  called  making-up  (in  special 
cases,  paging).  As  the  hand  typesetter  sets,  or  sticks, 
type  in  a  small  three-sided  tray,  or  stick,  which  he  holds 
in  his  hand,  type  matter  is  often  measured  by  sticks ful — 
about  two  inches,  or  150  words  in  newspaper  type. 

Material  used  to  fill  space  between  type  is  called  fur- 
niture. Thin  strips  of  metal  placed  between  lines  are 
called  leads  (leds).  Each  is  2  points,  or  V72  inch  thick, 
and  type  matter  with  a  single  piece  between  each  pair  of 
lines  is  said  to  be  leaded.  If  two  leads  are  placed  between 
each  pair  of  lines,  it  is  double-leaded.  Without  leads,  it 
is  said  to  be  set  solid.  Thicker  spaces  between  lines  are 
called  slugs,  as  are  the  individual  lines  cast  by  a  linotype 
machine.  The  blank  types  used  to  separate  words  are 
called  spaces ;  when  they  are  square,  like  the  em,  they  are 
called  quads  (used  ordinarily  to  indent  paragraphs). 
It  is  through  the  varying  width  of  these  spaces  that  the 
printer  is  able  to  fill  a  line  exactly  full,  and  the  process 
is  called  justifying. 

Strips  of  metal  that  print  lines  are  called  mdes.  The 
long  ones  which  separate  columns  are  column  rules.  Short 
or  wavy  rules  used  between  certain  articles  across  the 
column  are  cut-off  rules.  Usually  articles  are  separated 
by  dashes.  Rules  vary  from  a  fine  line  to  a  heavy,  black 
line ;  some,  called  leaders,  print  rows  of  dots ;  some  per- 
forate the  paper;  some,  called  double  rules,  print  two 
lines.     Rules  or  pieces  of  metal  used  to  make  frames 


TECHNICAL  PROBLEMS  381 

around  articles  are  called  borders;  a  piece  of  matter  set 
with  plain  rules  about  the  four  sides  is  said  to  be  boxed. 
Any  piece  of  metal  or  wood  that  prints  a  picture  is  called 
a  cut. 

The  printer  keeps  his  type  in  flat  trays,  called  caseSj 
which  contain  a  box  for  each  letter.  The  capitals  are 
kept  in  the  tray  on  top,  the  upper  case;  small  letters  are 
kept  in  the  lower  case.  Each  pair  of  trays  contains  a 
font,  or  complete  assortment  of  275  kinds  of  letters,  fig- 
ures, points,  and  other  characters  that  make  one  size,  face, 
and  style  of  type.  A  ligature  is  a  combination  of  two  or 
more  letters  cast  on  one  piece,  like  fl,  ff,  fi,  ffl,  If),  ce,  ce. 
Manuscript  is  known  as  copy,  and  a  small  piece  which  is 
set  at  one  time  is  called  a  take. 

7.  Specifications. — This  does  not  complete  the  variety 
of  knowledge  that  goes  to  make  up  an  understanding  of 
typography.  More  may  be  learned  in  a  few  visits  to  a 
printing  office  than  from  volumes  on  the  subject.  It 
shows,  however,  that  an  editor  cannot  mark  his  copy  with 
printer's  directions  unless  he  knows  the  printer's  language, 
^o  type  directions  can  be  prepared  without  a  knowledge 
of  the  kinds  of  type  at  the  particular  printer's  disposal, 
usually  learned  through  a  talk  with  the  printer. 

Complete  type  specifications  for  any  piece  of  copy 
include:  name,  style,  and  size  of  type  desired;  length  of 
lines;  and  general  arrangement  of  lines  and  paragraphs. 
Thus  a  piece  of  copy  may  be  marked  '^9-point  roman,  18 
ems  pica,  solid,  indent  paragraphs  2  ems" — or  '^10/12 
Bodoni  Script,  21  ems  pica,  hanging  indention,"  or 
7-point  DeYinne  Bold,  13  ems  pica,  leaded."  These 
directions  are  written  at  the  top  of  the  first  page  and 
enclosed  in  a  circle. 


382  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

8.  Title  Specifications. — Besides  type  directions  for 
the  body  of  the  copy,  special  directions  must  be  placed 
beside  each  title,  or  beside  the  first  if  they  are  all  to  be 
alike.  For  instance,  the  mark  may  be  ''36-point  Chelten- 
ham Bold  Condensed,  flush  at  left,"  or  ^'18-point  Caslon 
Italic,  centered."  In  newspaper  offices  such  specification 
is  simplified  by  a  schedule  in  which  various  kinds  of  head- 
lines are  designated  by  numbers ;  "^o.  8,"  for  instance, 
tells  the  printer  the  form  and  the  kind  of  type  desired. 

9.  Display. — Marks  used  to  indicate  special  display,  as 
described  above,  are :  lead  or  double  lead,  calling  for  extra 
white  space  between  lines;  hold  or  hi.  face,  calling  for 
blacker  type;  italics,  calling  for  slanting  type;  all  caps, 
meaning  all  in  capital  letters ;  caps,  arid  sm.  caps.,  mean- 
ing capital  letters  in  capitalized  words  but  small  capitals 
in  place  of  small  letters;  indented,  meaning  to  have  the 
first  line  set  back  from  the  left ;  hanging  indention,  mean- 
ing indention  of  all  lines  except  the  first  in  each  para- 
graph, which  is  set  fiush  with  the  left-hand  rule ;  centered, 
meaning  spaced  with  type  matter  in  center  of  line;  hox, 
calling  for  frame  of  rules  around  headline  or  type  matter  so 
indicated;  double  measure,  meaning  lines  long  enough  to 
reach  across  two  of  the  columns  in  use;  tabulate,  meaning 
set  in  table  form  as  indicated  ;  set  solid,  or  run  in,  meaning 
set  in  continuous  lines  although  copy  is  tabulated. 

Guide-Lines. — Other  marks  that  are  placed  on  copy 
with  the  purpose  of  assisting  the  editor  in  finding  articles 
in  proof  are  called  guide-lines,  or  catch-lines.  One  kind 
of  guide-line  often  used  is  simply  an  indication  of  the 
department  to  which  the  article  belongs — as  ^'Editorial,'' 
or  "Alumni  News." 

Another  kind  of  guide-line  is  used  to  assist  in  putting 


TECHNICAL  PROBLEMS  383 

together  an  article  that  is  sent  to  the  printer  in  sections. 
This  guide  line  is  most  commonly  used  in  newspaper  offices 
but  may  well  be  adopted  by  editors  of  small  publications. 
Its  first  part  is  a  name  that  designates  the  identity  of  the 
article — as  "School  Music."  To  this  designation  is  added 
an  indication  of  the  place  in  which  the  particular  piece 
of  copy  belongs.  It  may  appear  as  "Insert  School  Music/' 
"Add  School  Music/'  "School  Music— Introduction."  It 
is  also  well  to, include  the  name  as  a  part  of  each  page 
number — as  "School  Music — 3." 

These  guide-lines  are  placed  at  the  top  of  the  first  page 
of  copy  and  set  in  type  so  that  they  appear  in  the  proof 
to  assist  in  the  task  of  make-up. 

V.  Heatjlines  and  Headii^gs 

The  writing  of  headlines  and  headings  is  one  of  the 
most  technical  problems  involved  in  the  editor's  work, 
but,  by  the  same  sign,  there  are  more  principles  to  guide 
the  editor.  The  two  words,  headline  and  heading,  are 
used  here  to  indicate  the  distinction  between  newspaper 
headlines  and  titles,  or  headings,  used  in  other  periodicals. 
They  are,  of  course,  different  in  form  and  purpose  and 
therefore  are  handled  differently.  But  in  order  to  present 
usable  principles,  it  will  be  necessary  to  devote  this  dis- 
cussion mainly  to  one  of  the  two  kinds,  the  newspaper 
headline,  and  then  show  the  difference.  It  is  the  more 
technical  of  the  two  and,  more  than  that,  is  rapidly  be- 
coming the  model  for  magazine  headings. 

The  principle  of  modern  newspaper  headings  is  not 
so  much  one  of  form  as  of  content.  Its  form  has  settled 
into  more  or  less  fixed  lines.  The  idea  of  placing  a  title 
of  one  or  more  lines  of  display  type  above  each  article 


384  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

is  as  old  as  printing;  many  variations  of  it  appeared  long 
before  modern  headlines  were  invented.  The  real  dis- 
tinction depends  upon  what  the  title  says. 

The  title  heading  of  bygone  days  was  simply  a  label 
suggesting  an  idea;  it  contained  a  noun  and  some  modi- 
fiers. The  modern  headline,  however,  makes  a  statement ; 
it  contains  a  verb  as  well  as  a  noun.  In  content  it  is  a 
bulletin  of  the  news.  And,  since  news  is  the  commodity 
which  the  newspaper  publisher  has  to  sell,  the  bulletin 
headline  is  also  an  advertisement  of  the  contents  of  the 
article.  With  this  idea  in  mind  the  editor  ma.y  develop 
or  invent  any  conceivable  typographical  form.  Now, 
although  the  magazine  editor  hesitates  to  imitate  the  form 
of  the  newspaper  headline,  he  imitates  its  content,  and, 
therefore,  the  two  words,  headline  and  heading,  are  grad- 
ually becoming  synonymous. 

The  Headline's  Characteristics. — In  order  to  be  a  bul- 
letin of  the  content  of  an  article,  the  headline  must  take 
on  certain  definite  characteristics: 

1.  It  must  be  a  statement;  that  is,  it  must  contain  a 
verb.  If  divided  into  several  parts,  each  should  contain  a 
verb  so  that  each  part  will  make  an  additional  statement. 

2.  The  statements  made  by  the  headline  or  its  various^ 
parts  should  be  an  adequate  summary  of  the  gist,  or  sub- 
ject, of  the  article. 

3.  If  the  headline  is  to  be  attractive — an  advertise- 
ment— its  most  prominent  part,  the  first  line,  should  con- 
tain the  most  interesting  item  in  the  article. 

4.  To  be  of  any  value  as  a  bulletin,  it  must  make  defi- 
nite statements  which  contain  definite  ideas  and  must  be 
so  complete  that  its  meaning  may  be  grasped  easily  and 
without  further  explanation. 


TECHNICAL  PROBLEMS 


385 


The  Form  of  the  Headline — Although  the  form  has 
less  to  do  with  the  vital  principle  of  headline  writing,  it 
is  well  to  know  the  various  forms  which  are  used  in  Amer- 
ican newspapers.  They  cover  practically  the  limits  of 
headline  display,  and,  although  magazines  do  not  use  all 
of  them,  their  headings  are  included  in  the  list. 

1.  Deck. — Each  separate  division  or  layer  of  a  head- 
line is  called  a  deck.  The  last  two,  mentioned  below,  are 
sometimes  called  ''banks." 

2.  Crossline. — This  is  a  single  line  across  a  column  or 
page.  It  may  fill  the  space  exactly  or  be  centered  in  the 
space;  for  example: 

SENIORS  BREAK  OLD  RULE 

3.  DropUne. — This  is  a  crossline  that  has  been  divided 
into  two  or  more  parts.  To  indicate  that  it  is  an  expanded 
crossline,  its  first  line  begins  at  the  extreme  left  of  the 
space  and  its  last  line  extends  to  the  extreme  right;  each 
line  falls  several  units  short  at  the  other  end  so  that  the 
headline  seems  to  slope  down  toward  the  right.  The  drop- 
line  may  contain  two,  three,  or  more  lines,  and  is  desig- 
nated as  two-part  dropline,  three-part  dropline,  etc. : 


SMITH  NAMED  HEAD 
DF  DEBATE  SOCIETY 


THIRD  YEAR  MEN 
WIN  FIRST  PLACE 
IN  TRACK  TRIALS 


386  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

4.  Pyramid. — This  is  a  series  of  lines  that  grow 
shorter  toward  the  bottom  so  that  the  deck  has  the  ap- 
pearance of  an  inverted  pyramid.  It  may  have  any  num- 
ber of  lines,  from  two  to  five,  or  more ;  for  example : 


Winner  of  Annual  Class  Contest 

Elected  New  President 

of  Castalia 


5.  Hanging  Indention. — This  consists  of  a  series  of 
lines  in  which  the  first  fills  the  entire  space,  and  the  suc- 
ceeding lines  are  indented  at  the  left.  Such  a  deck  may 
consist  of  any  number  of  lines,  and  the  last  line  may  or 
may  not  be  full ;  for  example : 

Junior  Runners  Beat  Seniors  in 
Every  Race — Garner  Two  Seconds 
and  One  Third  as  Well 

There  are  other  variations  that  are  really  simply  modi- 
fications of  these  four  kinds.  There  are  also  many  ways 
of  building  a  headline  of  the  various  kinds,  in  various 
combinations,  in  various  orders,  and  in  various  types. 
Each  newspaper  has  its  characteristic  forms  and  com- 
binations, ordinarily  set  forth  in  a  series  of  model  head- 
lines on  a  schedule  sheet.  The  same  schedule  indicates 
the  size  and  style  of  type,  and  whether  the  various  decks 
are  to  be  set  in  capital  letters  or  in  capitals  and  small 
letters.  Each  kind  of  headline  has  a  number,  and  the 
headline  writer,  after  preparing  the  headline's  content, 
indicates  the  form  by  placing  the  number  on  his  copy. 

Mechanical  Requirements. — Since  the  headline,  whether 
in  newspaper  or  magazine,  is  constructed  under  a  definite 


TECHNICAL  PROBLEMS  387 

scheme  of  form,  size,  and  order,  the  writing  of  it  involves 
several  definite  mechanical  requirements.  These  must  be 
followed  to  the  letter  in  newspaper  headlines,  since  the 
space  allotted  is  limited  by  immovable  column  rules.  In 
magazine  headings  greater  latitude  is  allowed. 

1.  Length  of  Lines, — Because  of  its  form,  the  headline's 
words  and  statements  must  exactly  fill  the  specified  space. 
If  it  consists  of  several  lines,  the  copy  must  be  divided 
into  the  same  number  of  lines.  Each  line  must,  in  turn, 
exactly  fill  its  spice.  This  means  that  the  editor  must 
reckon,  not  only  the  number  of  words,  but  the  number  of 
letters  and  spaces.  The  first  step  in  writing  a  headline 
consists  in  counting  the  number  of  letters  and  spaces  in 
the  model  on  the  schedule  to  find  how  many  units  each 
line  will  hold ;  for  example : 


SMITH  NAMED  HEAD 
OF  DEBATE  SOCIETY 


-16^  units 
-16|  units 


All  letters  except  I,  M,  and  W  count  as  one  unit,  since  they 
are  practically  the  same  in  width.  The  letters  M  and  W 
count  1%  i^iriits  each;  the  letter  I  and  the  figure  1  count 
Yo  unit  each.  Spaces  between  words  count  as  one  unit 
each.  Each  punctuation  point  counts  as  %  unit;  dashes 
and  double  quotation  marks  count  as  full  units. 

On  this  basis  the  headline  writer  must  count  the  number 
of  letters  and  spaces  in  his  copy  and  alter  the  copy  until 
it  exactly  fits  the  scheme.  In  most  headlines  latitude  of 
one  unit  each  way  is  permissible,  but  more  than  one  unit 
is  likely  to  make  the  line  too  long  or  too  short.  Lines  that 
are  too  long  cannot  possibly  be  set  in  the  space ;  lines  that 


388  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

are  too  short  spoil  the  symmetry.  This  applies  to  all  cross- 
lines  and  droplines.  The  space  requirements  in  pyramids 
and  hanging  indentions  are  not  so  exact  because  there  is 
opportunity  to  take  up  space;  in  these  the  space  may  be 
estimated  in  number  of  words  but  it  is  well  to  try  to  avoid 
a  bad  break  at  the  end  of  a  line. 

2.  Form  of  Copy. — Headline  copy  should  be  written  in 
the  same  form  as  the  finished  headline ;  that  is,  the  words 
should  be  placed  in  lines  corresponding  with  the  lines  in 
the  printed  headline. 

3.  Building  the  Headline, — If  the  headline  consists  of 
more  than  one  deck,  it  is  well  to  plan  out  its  contents  before 
the  actual  writing  begins.  The  facts  or  statements  that 
may  be  used  should  be  outlined  in  a  series  of  groups  cor- 
responding with  the  number  of  decks ;  each  deck  should 
then  be  based  on  the  statement  allotted  to  it.  In  the  plan- 
ning the  statements  should  be  arranged  in  order  of  the 
prominence  of  their  respective  decks;  the  first  deck  con- 
tains the  main  statement,  and  each  succeeding  deck  is 
merely  an  elaboration  of  it.  If  this  scheme  is  followed, 
each  deck  is  written  as  a  separate  part  and  the  entire  head- 
line is  '^lilt  up." 

Some  Headline  Problems.  —  Although  no  attempt  is 
made  here  to  treat  all  details  of  technique  that  confront 
headline  writers,  some  questions  of  headline  writing, 
whether  magazine  or  newspaper,  may  be  answered  in 
advance : 

1.  Relatio^i  of  Dechs. — When  the  headline  consists  of 
several  decks,  care  must  be  taken  that  they  fit  together  in 
content  and  grammar.  There  is  some  question  as  to 
whether  succeeding  decks  should  present  entirely  new 
statements  or  should  be  elaborations  of  preceding  decks; 


TECHNICAL  PROBLEMS  389 

either  plan  is  permissible.  The  extreme  shortness  makes 
it  necessary  to  suppress  some  grammatical  parts,  trusting 
the  reader  to  find  the  missing  parts  in  other  decks.  This 
is  especially  true  of  the  subject;  often  a  deck,  although  a 
complete  statement,  has  no  subject  expressed.  Since  the 
reader  looks  in  a  preceding  or  following  deck  for  the  sup- 
pressed subject,  there  is  danger  that  he  will  not  find  the 
right  one,  or  that  it  may  not  agree  in  number,  tense,  or 
voice  with  the  rest  of  the  headline. 

2.  Verbs  in  Headlines. — To  be  a  statement,  each  deck 
of  the  headline  must  contain  a  verb  or  some  form  of  a 
verb.  It  may  be  suppressed,  if  it  is  readily  understood, 
but  its  feeling  remains,  and  an  infinitive  or  a  participle 
often  does  the  work.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  future 
and  the  passive,  when  there  is  no  space  for  auxiliaries. 
The  present  tense  is  used  for  the  past  in  newspaper  head- 
lines. 

3.  Choice  of  Words. — The  most  important  requirement 
in  word  usage  is  that  no  important  word  should  be  repeated 
in  any  of  the  decks  of  the  same  headline.  This  does  not 
apply,  of  course,  to  articles,  auxiliaries,  and  other  unim- 
portant words.  In  general,  words  used  in  headlines  should 
be  short,  concise,  and  vivid ;  four  short  words  in  a  line  are 
better  than  two  long  words.  Besides  making  a  statement, 
they  should  give  a  picture  and  attract  interest.  There  is 
no  place  for  meaningless  generalities.  Articles  are  or- 
dinarily omitted  unless  needed  to  fill  space.  Contractions, 
colloquialisms,  slang,  unconventional  synonyms,  reformed 
spelling,  and  other  expressions  of  a  similar  nature  should 
be  governed  by  the  same  rules  followed  throughout  the 
publication;  some  leniency  is  allowable  in  headlines  be- 
cause of  their  brevity. 


390  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

4.  Style  in  Headlines. — Punctuation  is  not  barred,  but 
it  is  rarely  used.  Commas  appear  only  when  absolutely 
necessary.  When  two  statements  in  the  same  deck  need 
a  mark  to  indicate  complete  separation,  the  semicolon  is 
used  in  lines  set  in  capital  letters,  and  the  dash  is  used 
in  decks  set  in  capitals  and  small  letters.  Abbreviation 
is  usually  governed  by  the  rules  of  the  editor's  style  sheet. 
Quotation  marks  are  occasionally  used,  although  not  to 
excess.  Usage  in  figures  usually  follows  the  editor's  style 
sheet,  but  in  the  headline  it  is  permissible  to  begin  a  sen- 
tence with  figures.  The  division  of  words  between  lines 
is  more  troublesome ;  it  is  considered  bad  form  to  hyphen- 
ate a  word  at  the  end  of  one  line  of  a  dropline  and  almost 
as  bad  to  split  an  infinitive  or  separate  an  auxiliary.  Each 
line  should  be  more  or  less  complete  in  itself. 

5.  ^Yaste  of  Space. — It  seems  unnecessary  to  remark 
that,  because  of  the  headline's  extreme  brevity,  its  space 
should  be  considered  highly  valuable  and  every  word 
should  be  worth  the  space  it  takes.  But  one  of  the  com- 
monest faults  in  headline  writing  is  the  failure  to  say 
something.  It  is  easy  to  fill  the  space  with  meaningless 
generalities  just  because  exact,  definite  words  do  not 
readily  fit  the  space.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  second 
line  of  a  deck,  w'hich  is  likely  to  be  made  up  of  space  fillers. 
Every  word  should  count  and  be  exact. 

Special  Kinds  of  Headlines. — The  more  common  kinds 
of  newspaper  headlines  are  the  major,  or  top-of -column, 
heads  designed  for  prominent  positions,  and  the  suhor- 
dinate  heads  for  less  prominent  positions.  There  are  also 
several  other  kinds  for  special  purposes : 

1.  Jump  Headline. — When  an  article  is  started  on  an 
early  page  and  continued,  or  hrohen  over,  on  a  later  page, 


TECHNICAL  PROBLEMS  391 

the  headline  that  is  placed  over  the  second  part  of  the 
article  is  called  a  jump  headline.  It  usually  contains  the 
same  material  as  the  first  headline  but  set  in  condensed 
form.  It  may  be  the  same  headline  set  in  smaller  type 
or  in  fewer  lines.  Its  purpose  is  simply  to  recall  the 
previous  headline  and  article. 

2.  Streamer  Headline. — Any  headline  that  stretches 
across  the  entire  top  of  a  newspaper  page  is  called  a 
banner,  or  streamer.  It  may  consist  of  one  or  several  lines 
set  in  large  type  and  is  usually  followed  by  a  single  or 
double-column  headline  directly  over  the  article.  Usually 
the  rule  that  separates  the  streamer  from  the  material 
below  is  omitted  over  the  article  to  which  the  banner 
applies. 

3.  Spread  Headlines. — When  a  headline  outgrows  the 
column  rules  and  stretches  over  two  or  more  columns,  it  is 
called  a  spread,  or  layout.  Its  form  is  unconventional, 
designed  for  a  special  case,  but  the  editor  follows  the  usual 
headline  principles  in  preparing  it. 

4.  Subhead. — This  is  a  name  applied  to  small  display 
lines  inserted  at  intervals  in  an  article  to  break  up  its  solid 
appearance.  They  are  ordinarily  set  in  bold  type  and 
consist  of  one  or  two  lines.  They  are  written  in  by  the 
copyreader  at  intervals  of  about  200  words  and  embody 
in  striking  terms  the  most  significant  fact  in  the  material 
that  follows.  In  some  serious  magazines  the  subhead 
marks  the  logical  divisions  of  the  articles.  The  usual  prac- 
tice is  to  use  statements  for  subheads,  each  containing  a 
verb. 

5.  Sidelieads  and  Cut-ins. — When  the  subhead  is  set  in 
as  a  part  of  the  first  line  of  reading  matter,  as  is  done  in 
this  book,  it  is  called  a  sidehead.    If  it  consists  of  several 


392  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

short  lines  in  different  type  inserted  like  a  box  in  one  side 
of  the  column,  so  that  the  reading  matter  runs  around  it, 
the  subhead  is  called  a  cut-in. 

6.  Overlines  and  Captions. — The  title  line  over  a  pic- 
ture is  called  an  overline;  it  usually  designates  the  picture 
or  calls  attention  to  its  significance.  The  title  or  note  that 
appears  under  a  picture  is  known  as  a  caption;  it  is  usually 
an  explanation  of  the  picture,  sometimes  in  several  lines. 

VI.     Peoofeeading 

Proofreading  is  the  mechanical  process  of  indicating 
errors  in  typesetting.  Whether  printed  matter  is  composed 
on  a  typesetting  machine  or  set  by  hand,  the  compositor 
makes  mistakes  in  reproducing  the  content  of  the  copy, 
and  broken  or  imperfect  type  creeps  in.  The  proofreader 
points  out  these  errors  and  indicates  corrections  which 
must  be  made  before  the  type  matter  is  used  for  printing. 

To  facilitate  the  work  of  finding  errors  in  typesetting, 
the  printer  takes  an  inked  impression,  called  a  p7'Oof,  of 
the  type  matter ;  the  operation  is  called  pulling  proof.  The 
first  proof  is  taken  as  soon  as  the  type  matter  has  been 
composed  and  as  it  stands  in  the  galleys;  it  is  therefore 
called  a  galley  proof.  After  the  proofreader  has  corrected 
it,  the  printer  revises  the  type  matter  accordingly.  Per- 
haps the  proofreader  then  reads  a  revise  proof  of  the  cor- 
rected type  to  catch  further  errors ;  this  is  especially  neces- 
sary in  linotype  composition,  since  the  correction  of  an 
error  means  the  resetting  of  an  entire  line  of  type  and  may 
result  in  another  error.  After  the  type  matter  has  been 
revised  and  arranged,  or  made  up,  in  the  form  of  pages, 
the  proofreader  reads  a  page  proof  of  it.  Again,  after  the 
pages  have  been  made  up  in  the  form  for  the  press,  a  form 


TECHNICAL  PROBLEMS  393 

proof  may  be  taken.  All  of  these  steps  are  necessary  in 
book  and  magazine  work,  but  in  newspaper  offices  the  gal- 
ley or  revise  is  usually  the  last  proof  read. 

How  Proof  Is  Corrected — The  proofreader  uses  a  dif- 
ferent set  of  signs  from  those  employed  by  the  copyreader 
and  a  different  method.  This  is  because  the  printer 
handles  copy  and  proof  differently.  When  the  printer  sets 
a  piece  of  copy  in  type,  he  must  read  all  of  it,  and  the  copy- 
reader  therefore  places  his  corrections  in  the  body  of  the 
copy.  But  when  the  printer  revises  type  in  accordance 
with  proof  corrections,  he  does  not  read  the  proof,  but 
simply  glances  do^^m  through  it  for  changes;  the  proof- 
reader, therefore,  places  his  corrections  in  the  margin  to 
attract  the  printer's  attention.  And  he  must  make  two 
marks  for  each  correction :  ( 1 )  a  mark  in  the  line  to  indi- 
cate the  position  of  the  change  desired,  and  (2)  a  mark  in 
the  margin  beside  the  line  to  call  the  printer's  attention. 
Since  there  is  more  space  in  the  margin,  the  mark  used 
there  is  such  that  it  will  also  indicate  the  nature  of  the 
change  desired.  The  common  proof  marks  (to  be  used  in 
the  margin),  are  known  in  all  offices. 

Mechanical  Details. — The  proofreader  looks  for  varia- 
tion of  content  from  that  of  the  copy,  for  typographical 
errors,  and  for  imperfect  type.  It  is  therefore  necessary 
to  scrutinize  every  letter  and  to  follow  copy  so  that  a  com- 
parison may  be  made. 

1.  Copyholder. — To  facilitate  the  comparison  with  copy 
it  is  customary  to  have  someone  else  (called  a  copyholder) 
follow  the  copy  as  the  proofreader  goes  over  the  proof ;  one 
or  the  other  reads  aloud. 

2.  Position  of  Maries. — As  remarked  above,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  place  the  proper  proof  mark  in  the  margin  and 


394  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Proofreadixg  Marks 
Kind  of  Type 
C»f«^^  Change  to  capital  letter. 
^c.      Change  to  small  capital  letter. 
te.         Change  to  lower  case  or  small  letter. 
'Ra>H..      Change  to  Roman  type. 
Shf.        Change  to  Italic  type. 
6.f.         Change  to  bold  face  type. 
^./.        Letter  marked  is  from  wrong  font. 
Jf  *■      Letter  marked  is  broken  or  imperfect. 
f^        Letter  marked  is  reversed,  or  upside  down. 

Punctuation 

O  Insert  period. 

if^v^  Insert  comma. 

il  Insert  semicolon. 

W  Insert  colon. 

^ .  Insert  apostrophe. 

i^  <<  Insert  quotation  marks,  single  or  double. 

—/  Insert  1-em  dash. 

•*/  Insert  2-em  dash. 

ff  Insert  hyphen. 

Position 
sss  Make  lines  straight. 

^  Transpose  order  of  elements  marked. 

t  Move  to  left. 

J  Move  to  right. 

^  Move  up. 

^*  Move  down. 

O  Indent  one  em. 


TECHNICAL  PROBLEMS  395 

Spacing 
^      Put  space  between  words. 
-#-#      Take  out  space  or  correct  uneven  spacing  between  words. 
C  Take  out  all  space  between  words  and  close  up. 

S         Close  up  but  leave  some  space. 
^        Take  out  hyphen  or  letter  and  close  up. 
'S'-r^  Insert  proper  ligature. 
•i*  Push  down  space  that  prints  up. 

«Mo        Insert  some  space  between  letters  (letter-spacing). 
/  Straighten  margin. 

"itadi      Insert  space  between  lines. 
^j^^d^    Reduce  space  between  lines. 

Paragraphing 
f         Begin  new  paragraph. 
//o&     Do  not  begin  new  paragraph. 
'^un.U    Make  elements  follow  on  same  line  without  break. 

Abbreviation 
^fttJfant    Substitute  full  spelling  of  word  or  number. 
fT^.        Subs"titute  figures. 

Insertion  or  Omission 

A  Caret  indicates  point  of  insertion. 

.^  ff      Line  through  letter  indicates  that  it  is  to  be  changed  or 
removed  in  accordance  with  margin  mark. 

J9S        Take  out  element  marked;  mark  is  called  *'dele." 

je^V.      Don't  make  change  indicated;  let  it  stand. 

C^^S^     Allow  word  to  remain  as  it  is. 

Uncertainty 
«&««        Is  this  right  or  according  to  copy? 
See^ff   See  copy  and  insert  what  has  been  omitted. 


396  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

another  mark  in  the  line  to  indicate  the  error's  exact  loca- 
tion. The  second  mark  is  usually  a  caret  (  a  )  to  indicate 
a  place  where  material  is  to  be  inserted,  or  an  oblique  line 
(/)  through  a  letter  to  indicate  that  it  is  to  be  taken  out. 
^^^len  there  are  several  proof  marks  in  the  same  line, 
oblique  lines  are  used  to  separate  them. 

3.  Best  Practice. — Some  amateur  proofreaders  use  con- 
necting lines  leading  from  the  error  to  the  proof  mark  in 
the  raargin.  This  method  is  satisfactory  when  there  are 
few  errors,  but,  if  many  corrections  must  be  made,  the  lines 
become  confusing.  To  some  proofreaders,  also,  it  seems 
useless  to  know  all  the  marks  and  to  use  the  proper  one 
when  an  error  is  obvious ;  even  so,  since  printers  may  not 
be  so  intelligent  as  one  might  wish,  it  is  usually  best  to 
use  all  the  marks.  In  a  work  of  such  detailed  accuracy 
as  proofreading  too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  in  leaving 
no  room  for  errors. 

4.  Spacing. — In  calling  for  alterations  and  corrections 
of  type  matter  the  proofreader  must  remember  that  ''type 
is  not  made  of  rubber."  The  only  elastic  part  of  a  line 
is  the  space  between  words,  and  its  elasticity  is  limited. 
Serious  alteration  requires  "catching  up"  in  preceding  or 
following  lines;  inserting  or  taking  out  of  a  single  word 
may  require  alteration  of  several  lines.  Whenever  the 
character  of  the  copy  permits,  the  proofreader  takes  into 
consideration  the  catching  up  required  and  tries  to  take  as 
much  from  a  line  as  he  inserts  into  it,  or  vice  versa.  This 
is  especially  true  in  linotype  work,  since  every  line  affected 
must  be  reset. 

6.  Inserted  Material. — This  should  be  written  in  the 
margin  with  an  arrow  leading  to  the  line  concerned.  If 
an  extensive  omission  or  a  serious  confusion  is  discovered, 


TECHNICAL  PROBLEMS  397 

the  proofreader  marks  the  part  concerned  and  writes  '^See 
Copy"  in  the  margin. 

6.  Irregular  Spacing.  —  Proofreaders  are  frequently 
annoyed  by  lines  in  which  there  is  too  little  or  too  much 
space  between  words  and  are  inclined  to  call  for  better 
justification.  One  must  first,  however,  examine  the  line 
to  see  if  better  spacing  is  possible  with  the  particular  com- 
bination of  words.  Sometimes,  of  course,  the  compositor 
is  careless  in  spacing,  perhaps  to  increase  the  amount  set. 

7.  Linotype  Composition, — Since  matter  set  on  a  lino- 
type machine  consists  of  solid  lines  cast  in  one  piece,  any 
alteration  requires  the  resetting  of  the  entire  line.  Cor- 
rections are  therefore  expensive,  and  one  correction  may 
result  in  another  error  in  the  same  line. 

What  Errors  to  Look  for Besides  errors  that  are  devi- 
ations from  copy,  certain  mechanical  errors  are  frequent : 

1.  Bad  Alignment. — "When  lines  are  not  reasonably 
straight,  the  proofreader  should  call  attention  to  the  fact. 
Good  alignment  is  easy  to  attain  in  hand  set  or  monotype 
material,  but  in  linotype  composition,  especially  if  the 
machine  is  old,  perfect  alignment  is  difficult. 

2.  Broken  or  Imperfect  Type. — This  fault  appears  in 
all  kinds  of  composition.  Although  what  appears  to  be 
broken  type  may  sometimes  be  caused  by  badly  inked 
proof,  it  is  well  to  mark  it  so  that  the  type  will  be  exam- 
ined. In  machine  composition  it  is  necessary  to  watch  for 
type  that  seems  to  have  sunk  imder  the  proof  roll  as  a 
result  of  being  honeycombed  at  the  base;  uneven  impres- 
sion or  missing  letters  will  indicate  this,  and,  if  the  matter 
is  not  reset,  it  will  break  down  in  the  press. 

3.  Wrong  Fa^e. — In  hand  composition  the  appearance 
of  letters  of  the  wrong  style  and  face  is  common ;  certain 


398  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Example  of  Cokkected  Peoof 

u>.j^.i  S^EN  WJ^RKMEN  BURIED 
«.j.      IN  G/^LEN£  EXP;|6SI0N  c? 

JS        Blast   Znd   Flre^  Destroy   Experiinent{      ez^ 
Plant— Men  in   Blazing  ^otlias  cofi. 

Leap  from  M^ySdows  ^  / 

*/         Pittsfield,  IlK^June  25.— Seven. men 
S/t^/      ^^^  P'ol^^y  fatajy  burned  today  by 
J     J      an  explosion  of  gasolene  in  tbe  i^lorks       «Ay 
^^^  -^of  the  ^as    Experiment^  |2!ompany,      4/  ^-^^ 
All  of  the  fourteen  persons  on  the 
j^      eecondnoor  leaped  from  the^  windows 
blazing  like  torches. 
The  explosion  eame  at  -Syfo)  p.  ttu      ^ 
^  while  most  of  the  workmen  were  \n 

]l.t,       the  laboratory  on    the    second   floor,         .  . 
Without  warning  a  20^gallon  retort       A/ 
Xl  %/     bnr^into  flam^and  blazing  petrol  was        ^ 
'       lH??gUJ   u    tUuln    uhidluilSBS^.  'i>^ 
tit/     se^  flying  aroimd  the  room. 
^f/         The  cadse  of  the  explosion  Is  not 
X7       kj^wn.    ^xpe;r(ments  on  a  new  pzo^       % 
^       cjfes  for  mamifacturing^were  beiny     OUSo/^h^f 

1  made  at  the  time,  and^^it^  thought  Xt. 
4K  that  a  retort  marie  at.Ahe  tim  i^capie  6/ 
Qy      orerheated « 

J  "The  first  his/ of  flame  was  followed        <*/»/, 
ll ^1      by  a  blast  of  nm»ng  gasolene/' said         O  (f  m^ 
Cap^      Charles  R.  iiimuels,    foreman  of  the^ 
laboratory,  this  afternoon,    "We  boys 
bad   no    time    for   fire-  escape^—we. 

jumped. 

■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■1 


TECHNICAL   PROBLEMS  399 

small  capital  letters  often  creep  in  instead  of  small  letters. 
The  fault  is  impossible  on  the  linotype  machine  unless  the 
matrices  are  mixed ;  it  is  also  impossible  in  monotype  work 
unless  corrections  have  been  made. 

4.  Reversed  Letters. — ^]\iany  letters  appear  upside  dowu 
in  hand-set  work.  If  the  letter  has  no  decided  top  or 
bottom,  the  fault  results  in  bad  alignment  since  the  base 
line  is  nearer  the  bottom  of  the  shoulder.  This  fault  is 
practically  impossible  in  machine  work. 


CHAPTEE  III 

SAMPLE  STYLE  SHEET 

This  style  sheet  is  one  that  was  prepared  by  the  faculty 
of  the  Course  in  Journalism  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin 
in  cooperation  with  Madison  newspapers  for  which  the 
journalism  students  write  for  practice  in  reporting.  It  is 
the  result  of  a  series  of  annual  revisions  extending  over  a 
series  of  years.  For  the  purposes  of  the  teachers  and 
students  who  use  this  book,  certain  of  the  original  rules 
of  capitalization  have  been  changed  in  the  direction  of 
^^up-style."  As  the  style  sheet  is  unusually  brief,  it  de- 
pends greatly  upon  its  examples  to  make  fine  distinctions 
in  the  rules.    For  easy  reference,  the  rules  are  numbered. 

CAPITALIZATION 
Capitalize : 

1.  All  proper  nouns,  months,  days  of  the  week;  but  not  the 

seasons. 

2.  Principal  words  in  the  titles  of  books,  plays,  lectures,  pic- 

tures, toasts,  etc.,  including  the  initial  "A"  or  "The,"  but 
not  including'  conjunctions,  articles,  and  prepositions  of 
less  than  five  letters  within  the  title:  "A  Man  Without  a 
Country";  "The  Lady  or  the  Tiger";  "Marching  with 
Lee." 

3.  Titles  denoting  official  position,  rank,  or  occupation,  when 

they  precede  a  proper  noun:  President  Harding,  Judge 
John  R.  Holt  (but  John  R.  Holt,  judge  of  the  circuit 
court).  Avoid  long,  awkward  titles  before  the  names, 
such  as  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Property  Smith. 

4.  Entire  names  of  associations,  societies,  leagues,  companies, 

400 


SAMPLE  STYLE  SHEET        401 

roads,  lines,  and  other  incorporated  bodies:  Louisiana 
State  University,  University  of  Wisconsin,  First  National 
Bank,  Bank  of  Missouri,  Union  Trust  Company,  North- 
western Line,  Epworth  Methodist  Church,  Association  of 
Collegiate  Alumnae. 

5.  Eaiire   names   of   buildings,   cemeteries,   churches,    colleges, 

schools,  hospitals,  hotels,  theatres,  etc.:  South  Hall,  Park 
Hotel,  Hayes  Block,  Singer  Building,  Dewey  School, 
South  Division  High  School,  New  York  Theatre,  Beloit 
College,  Yale  University. 

6.  Only  the  jDroper  noun  in  a  geogi'aphieal  name,  except  when 

the  common  noun  precedes:  Rock  river,  Fox  lake;  but 
Lake  Michigan,  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

7.  Only  the  distinguishing  parts  of  names  of  streets,  avenues, 

boulevards,  wards,  districts,  etc. :  Pinckney  street.  Grand 
avenue,  Third  ward,  Second  district. 

8.  Schools,  colleges,  and  other  main  divisions  of  a  university, 

but  not  departments  of  study :  College  of  Agriculture, 
Law  School,  Course  in  Commerce,  but  department  of 
astronomy. 

9.  Names  of  all  religious  denominations,  and  nouns  and  pro- 

nouns of  deity;  also  Bible,  Scriptures,  Gospels. 

10.  Entire  names  of  military  organizations :  First  Illinois  Volun- 

teers, Twenty-third  Wisconsin  Regiment,  Ohio  State 
Militia. 

11.  Names  of  national  bodies,  buildings,  officers,  boards,  etc.: 

Congress,  Senate,  Capitol,  Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion  {see  rule  19). 

12.  Names    of    all    political    parties:    Republican,    Bolshevist, 

Socialist. 

13.  Sections  of  the  country,  but  not  the  points  of  the  compass: 

the  East,  the  Middle  West;  but  east,  northwest. 

14.  Abbreviations  of  college  degrees:  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Ph.D.    (see 

rule  25),. 

15.  Names  of  sections  of  a  city  and  nicknames  of  states  and 

cities:  the  East  Side,  the  Badger  State,  the  Windy  City. 
16._pistinguishing  parts  of  names  of  holidays:  Fourth  of  July, 
New  Year's  day. 

17.  Names  of  races'  and  nationalities :  Indians,  Caucasian,  Negro. 

18.  Nicknames  of  athletic  clubs  and  teams,  the  White  Sox,  the 

Gophers. 


402  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

Do  Not  Capitalize: 

19.  Names  of  state,  county,  or  city  bodies,  buildings,  officers, 

boards,  etc. :  state  assembly,  tax  commission,  budget  com- 
mittee, postoffice,  city  hall,  common  council,  county  board, 
state  capitol,  mayor,  governor   {see  rule  11). 

20.  Points  of  the  compass:  east,  northwest. 

21.  Names    of    school    or    college    studies,    except    names    of 

languages:  biology,  French. 

22.  Titles  when  they  follow  the  name :  Henry  Wilson,  professor 

of  Greek. 

23.  Abbreviations  of  time  of  day:    a.m.,  p.m.,  but  12  m. 

24.  Names  of  school  or  college  classes:  sophomore,  senior. 

25.  College  degrees  when  spelled  out :  bachelor  of  arts,  but  B.A. 

26.  Seasons'  of  the  year:  spring,  autumn. 

27.  Names  of  officers  in  list  of  officers  as  in  election:    The  new 

officers  are:  John  C.  Walter,  president,  etc. 

28.  The   following  nouns   after   proper  nouns:   street,   avenue, 

boulevard,  place,  ward,  district,  etc.  {see  rule  7). 

29.  Scientific  names  of  plants,  animals,  birds,  etc.:  cyperus  al- 

ternifolius. 

PUNCTUATION 

30.  Omit  period  after  "per  cent"  and  after  nicknames    (Tom, 

Sam,  Will). 

31.  Use  a  comma  before  "and"  in  a  list:    red,  white,  and  blue. 

32.  Punctuate  list  of  names  with  cities  or  states,  after  a  colon, 

thus:  Messrs.  Arnold  Woll,  Racine;  R.  G.  Davitt,  Beloit, 
etc.  Punctuate  list  of  names  with  offices,  after  a  colon 
thus:  J.  S.  Hall,  president;  Henrj-  Brown,  vice-president. 

33.  Use  a  colon  after  a  statement  introducing  a  direct  quotation 

of  one  or  more  paragraphs,  and  begin  a  new  paragraph 
for  the  quotation.     Use  a  colon  after  "as  follows." 

34.  Never  use  a  colon  after  viz.,  to  wit,  namely,  e.  g.,  i.  e.,  except 

when  they  end  a  paragraph.  Use  colon,  dash  or  semi- 
colon before  them  and  comma  after  them,  thus:  This  is 
the  man;  to  wit,  the  victim. 

35.  Do  not  use  a  comma  between  a  man's  name  and  "Jr."  or 

"Sr." 

36.  Use  an  apostrophe  with  year  of  college  classes:  class  of  '87, 

John  White  '01. 

37.  Do  not  use  a  hyphen  in  "today"  and  "tomorrow." 


SAMPLE  STYLE  SHEET        403 

38.  Use  a  hyphen  in  compound  numbers:  thirty-two. 
39._Use  no  apostrophe  in  making  plural  of  figures:  early  '90s, 
not  '90's. 

40.  Use  no  apostrophe  in  such  abbreviations  as  Frisco,  varsity, 

phone,  bus. 

41.  Use  an  em  dash  after  a  man's  name  placed  at  the  beginning 

in  a  series  of  interviews:  Henry  Keith — I  have  nothing 
to  say. 

42.  Don't  use  a  comma  in  "6  feet  3  inches  tall",  "3  years  6 

months  old",  etc. 

43.  In    sporting    news    punctuate    thus:    Score:    Wisconsin    8, 

Chicago  3.     100-yard  dash — Smith,  first;  Hanks,  second. 
Time,  0:10  1-5. 

44.  Punctuate  votes  in  balloting  thus,  Yeas,  22;  nays,  47. 


QUOTATION 
Quote: 

45.  All  verbatim  quotations  when  they  are  to  be  set  in  the  same 

type  and  measure  as  the  context,  but  not  when  they  are 
to  be  in  smaller  type  or  narrower  measure. 

46.  All  testimony,  conversation,  and  interviews  given  in  direct 

form,  except  when  name  of  speaker  or,  Q.  and  A.,  with 
a  dash,  precedes,  as :  John  Keith — I  have  nothing  to  say. 
Q. — What  is  your  name?    A. — Oscar  Brown. 

47.  Names  of  books,  dramas,  paintings,  statuary,  operas,  songs, 

subjects  of  lectures,  sermons,  toasts,  magazine  articles, 
including  the  initial  "A"  or  "The";  "A  Man  Without  a 
Country." 

48.  Nicknames    used    before    surnames:    "Al"    Harris,    Henry 

("Slim")  Hall,  but  avoid  nicknames  as  far  as  possible. 

49.  Use  sin gle„q notation  marks  for  quotations  within  a  quotation. 

50.  Use  quotation  marks  at  the  beginning  of  each  paragraph 

of  a  continuous  quotation  of  several  paragraphs,  but  at 
the  end  of  the  last  paragraph  only. 

Do  Not  Quote: 

51.  Names  of  characters  in  plays:   Shylock  in  "The  Merchant 

of  Venice." 

52.  Names   of  newspapers  or  periodicals:   the   Springfield  Re- 

publican. 

53.  Names  of  vessels,  horses,  dogs,  and  automobiles. 


404  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 

FIGURES 
Use  Figures  For: 

54.  Numbers  of  100  or  over,  except  in  the  case  of  approximate 

numbers,  as  "about  a  hundred  men." 

55.  Numbers  under  100  only  in  the  following  cases: 

56.  Hours  of  the  day:    7  p.m.,  at  8:30  this  morning. 

57.  JDays  of  the  month  omitting  d,  th,  st :  April  29,  1918 ;  July  1- 

58.  Ages:  He  was  12  years  old;  2-year-old  James. 

59.  All  dimensions,  prices,  degrees  of  temperature,  per  cents, 

dates,  votes,  times  in  races,  etc.:  3  feet  long,  $3  a  yard, 
78  degi'ees,  95  per  cent. 

60.  All  sums  of  money  (with  dollar  mark  or  cents)  :  $24,  $5.06, 

75  cents. 

61.  Street  and  room  numbers :  1324  Grand  avenue,  69  University 

hall. 

62.  Numbered    streets    under    100th:    Twenty-sixth    street,    but 

145th  street. 

63.  "When  used  in  close  connection  with  numbers  over  100:  133 

boys  and  56  girls. 

64.  Do  not  "begin  a  sentence  with  figures;  supply  a  word  or 

spell  out. 

ABBREVIATION 

Abbreviate : 

65.  The  following  titles  and  no  other,  when  they  precede  a  name : 

Rev.,  Dr.,  Mr.,  Mrs.,  M.,  Mme.,  Mile.,  Prof,  (before  a 
full  name  only;  Prof.  E.  G.  Hunt,  but  Professor  Hunt), 
and  military  titles,  except  sergeant,  corporal,  and  chap- 
lain. Never  w^rite  Pres.  Harding  or  Vice-Pres.  Coolidge, 
Sen.  Jones. 

66.  Names  of  states,  only  when  they  follow  names  of  cities: 

Madison,  Wis.   (but  never  "a  citizen  of  Wis.") 

67.  "Number"  before  figures:  No.  24. 

68.  Saint  and  Mount  in  proper  names,  but  not  Fort:  St.  John, 

but  Fort  Wayne. 

Do  Not  Abbreviate: 

69.  Railway,  company,  street,  avenue,  district,  etc. :  Chicago  and 

Northwestern  railway,  State  street,  A.  B.  Hall  company. 
(Railway  and  railroad  may  be  abbreviated  when  initials 
are  used:  C,  M.  &  St.  P.^Ry.) 


SAMPLE  STYLE  SHEET        405 

70.  Christian    names    like    William,    Charles,    Thomas,    John, 

Alexander. 

71.  The  titles,  congressman,  senator,  representative,  president, 

secretary,  treasurer,  etc.,  preceding  a  name. 

72.  Names  of  months  except  in  dates  and  datelines. 

73.  Yeays  ('97  for  1897),  except  in  referring  to  college  classes^ 

etc. 

74.  Christmas  in  the  form  of  Xmas. 

75.  Per  cent:  15  per  cent   (not  15%). 

76.  Cents:  75  cents  (not  75cts.  or  75c),  except  in  market  quota- 

tions. 

77.  Avoid    colloquial    abbreviations    like    "prof",    "libe",    "ag- 

rics". 

DATES  AND  DATELINES 

78.  In  dates,  write   Jan.  12,  1914    (not  the  12th  of  January, 

or  12  January). 

79.  Punctuate  datelines  thus :  MADISON,  Wis.,  Feb.  11.— Fire 

destroyed  the,  etc.     Omit  state  after  names  of  prominent 

cities.      Abbreviate    months    of   more    than    five    letters. 

Omit  year  and  d,  st,  th   (after  figures). 

Begin   the   story   immediately   after   dash   and   on   same 

line. 

ADDRESSES 

80.  Write  addresses  thus: 

Frank  D.  Miles,  136  Gilman  street.  Hiram  Swenck,  Cuba 
City,  Wis. 

81.  Omit  ''at"  and  "of"  before  address.     Do  not  abbreviate  or 

capitalize  street,  avenue,  etc.  Spell  out  numbered  streets 
up  to  100th. 

TITLES 

82.  Always  give  initials  or  first  names  of  persons  the  first  time 

they  appear  in  a  story. 

83.  Never  use  only  one  initial;  use  both  or  first  name:  J.  H. 

Ward,  John  H.  Ward,  or  John  Ward  (not  J.  Ward). 
Do  not  use  nicknames  except  in  sporting  news  or  in  the 
form  John   ("Spike")   Brown. 


406  JOURNALISTIC   WRITING 

84.  Never  use  Mr.  with  initials  or  first  name:  Mr.  Ward   (not 

Mr.  John  H.  Ward). 

85.  Give  first  name  of  unmarried  woman,  not  initials  only :  Miss 

Mary  R.  Snow  (not  Miss  M.  R.  Snow). 

86.  Always   use   the   title   Misg,  before   an   unmarried   woman's 

name  and  Mrs.  before  a  married  woman's. 

87.  Begin  list  of  unmarried  women  with  "Misses,"  and  one  of 

married  women  with  "Mesdames,"  giving  first  name  of 
unmarried  women,  and  husband's  first  name  or  initials 
with  married  women's  names.  Begin  lists  of  men's  names 
with  "Messrs." 
38.  Supply  "the"  before  Rev.;  supply  Mr.  if  first  name  is 
omitted  :"llie  Rev.  S.  R.  Hart,  or  the  Rev.  Mr.  Hart  (not 
Rev.  S.  R.  Hart,  the  Rev.  Hart,  or  Rev.  Hart). 

89.  Write  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Arthur  S.  Miles   (not  Arthur  S.  Miles 

and  wife). 

90.  Write   Prof,   and  Mrs.  Henry  Wilton    (not  Mr.   and  Mrs. 

Prof.  Henry  Wilton). 

91.  Give  the  title  professor  only  to  members  of  faculty  of  profes- 

sorial rank;  use  "Mr."  when  neeessaiy  with  name  of  in- 
structor or  assistant. 

92.  Avoid  long  titles,  such  as  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 

tion Moore. 

93.  Never  use  the  title  "Honorable"  or  "Hon." 

PREPARATION  OF  COPY 

94.  Write  legibly;  use  a  typewriter  whenever  possible. 

95.  Never  write  on  both  sides  of  the  sheet. 

96.  Double  si)ace  your  typewritten  and  longhand  copy. 

97.  Use  8V2  X  11  soft  white  copy  paper  for  all  your  work. 

98.  Begin  your  story  about  the  middle  of  the  first  page. 

99.  Number  sheets  at  the  top  of  the  page  and  enclose  the  number 

in  a  circle. 

100.  Put    an    end    mark    (J)    at    the    close    of   every    complete 

story. 

101.  Enclose  all  quotation  marks  in  half  circles  in  long  hand. 

102.  Print  all  names  in  longhand  copy. 

103.  Put  abbreviated  name  of  story  with  name  of  writer  under 

it  in  upper  left-hand  corner  c^  each  sheet. 


SAMPLE  STYLE  SHEET        407 


PARAGRAPHS 

104.  Indent  each  paragraph  about  two  inches. 

105.  Remember  that  the  length  of  paragraphs  in  newspapers  does 

not    normally   exceed    100   words,    and   generally   ranges 
from  25  to  75  words. 

106.  Put  an  important  idea  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  sentence 

of  each  paragraph. 

107.  Avoid  beginning  successive  paragraphs  with  the  same  word, 

pErase,  or  construction. 

108.  Don't  put  important  details  in  the  last  paragraph  where 

they  may  be  cut  off  in  the  make-up. 

109.  Make  separate  paragraphs  of  introductory  statements  like 

"He  said  in  part",  "The  report  follows",  and  end  them 
with  a  colon. 

110.  Set  off  as  a  separate  paragraph  a  direct  quotation  of  more 

than  one  sentence  without  explanatory  material,  at  the 
beginning  of  a  story. 

SENTENCES 

111.  Make  evident  the  construction  in  every  sentence  so  that  the 

statement  may  be  read  rapidly. 

112.  Avoid  choppy,  disconnected  short  sentences. 

113.  Don't   overload  the   first   sentence   of   a   summary   lead  by 

crowding  in  unessential  details. 

114.  Put  an  important  idea  at  the  beginning  of  every  sentence. 

WORDS 

115.  Avoid  words  that  are  likely  to  be  unfamiliar  to  the  average 

reader,  unless  you  explain  them  m  your  story. 

116.  Don't  use  trite  phrases. 

117.  Use  superlatives  sparingly. 

118.  Use  slang  only  when  circumstances  demand  it. 

119.  Find  the  one  noun  to  express  the  idea,  the  one  adjective,  if 

necessary,  to  qualify  it,  and  the  one  verb  needed  to  give 
it  life. 

120.  Use  "men"  and  "women"  in  writing  of  university  students, 

not  "boys"  and  "girls." 

121.  Do  not  use  "school"  in  writing  of  the  university  as  a  whole. 


108  JOURNALISTIC  WRITING 


PROMPTNESS 

122.  Turn  in  all  your  work  at  or  before  the  appointed  time. 

123.  Be  on  time  at  every  appointment. 

124.  Never  put  off  till  tomorrow  getting  in  news  that  is  new 

today. 

ACCURACY 

125.  Remember  that  the  truth   and  nothing  but  the  truth,  in- 

terestingly presented,  makes  the  best  news  story. 

126.  Don't  try  to  make  cleverness  a  substitute  for  truth. 

127.  Don't  forget  that  faking  is  lying. 

128.  Realize  that  every  mistake  you  make  hurts  someone. 

129.  Remember  that  what  you  write  for  newspaper  publication 

is  read  by  thousands  and  helps  to  influence  public  opinion. 

130.  Verify  all  names,  initials,  addresses,  etc. 

131.  Get  all  the  news;  don't  stop  with  half  of  it. 

132.  Don't  give  rumors  as  facts. 

133.  Be  fair  and  unbiased;  give  both  sides  of  the  case. 

134.  Don't  misrepresent  by  playing  up  a  statement  that,  taken 

from  its  context,  is  misleading. 

135.  Don't  make  the  necessity  for  speed  an  excuse  for  careless- 

ness and  inaccuracy. 

ACCURACY  ALWAYS 


APPENDICES 


appe:n^dix  I 

BOOKS  ON  JOURNALISM 

The  student  or  teacher  who  desires  to  read  further  into 
the  technique  and  problems  of  journalism  will  find  in  the 
following  list  the  texts  and  references  that  are  most  used 
in  the  university  schools  of  journalism.  A  number  of  older 
works  are  omitted  because  they  are  out  of  print  or  have  been 
superseded  by  later  books. 

Textbooks  of  Newspaper  Writing  and  Editing 

BiNG,  P.  C,  "The  Country  Weekly"  (Appleton). 

Bleyer,  W.  G.,  "Newspaper  Writing  and  Editing"    (Houghton 
Mifflin). 

.,    "How    to   Write    Special    Feature    Articles"    (Houghton 

Mifflin). 

Flint,  L.  K,  "The  Editorial"  (Appleton). 

Harrington,  H.  F.,  and  Frankenberg,  T.   T.,   "Essentials  of 
Journalism"   (Ginn). 

Hyde,  G.  M.,  "Newspaper  Reporting  and  Correspondence"  (Ap- 
pleton). 

.,  "Newspaper  Editing"  (Appleton). 

.,  "Handbook  for  Newspaper  Workers"  (Appleton). 

Neal,  R.  W.,  "Editorials  and  Editorial  Writing"    (Home  Cor- 
respondence School,  Springfield,  Mass.). 

Ross,  C.  G.,  "The^Writing  of  News"  (Heath). 

Spencer,  M.  L.,  "News  Writing"   (Heath). 

Williams,  W.,  and  IMartin,  F.  L.,  "The  Practice  of  JournaHsm" 
(Stephens). 

411 


412  APPENDIX  I 

Collections  of  News  Stories  and  Editorials 

y  Bleyer,  W.  G.,  ^^Types  of  News  Writing"  (Houghton  Mifflin). 
"National  rioodmarks,"  from  Collier's  Weekly    (Doran). 
Cooke,  R.  G.,  "Casual  Essays  of  the  New  York  Sun"   (out  of 
print). 
^  Cr^ne,  Dr.  Frank,  "Adventures  in  Common  Sense"  (Lane). 
CuNLiFFE,  J.  W.,  and  Lomer,  G.  R.,  "Writing  of  Today"  (Cen- 
tury). 
^  Harrington,  H.  F.,  "Typical  News  Stories"  (Ginn). 

"Editorials  from  the  Hearst  Newspapers"    (International  Book 

Co.). 
Machail,  J.   W.,   editor,  "Modern  Essays,"   from  the   London 
Times   (Longmans). 

Books  Descriptive  of  Newspaper  Work 

Blythe,  S.  G.,  "Making  a  Newspaper  Man"   (Altemus). 
DiBBLEE,  G.  B.,  "The  Newspaper"   (Holt). 
Given,  J.  L.,  "Making  a  Newspaper"  (Appleton). 
-     Hemstreet,  Charles,  "ReiPorting  for  the  Newspapers"    (Wes- 
sels). 

Histories  of  American  Journalism 

/Davis,  Elmer,  "History  of  the  New  York  Times"  (N.  Y.  Times). 
Hudson,  Frederic,  "Journalism  in  U.  S.  to  1872"  (Harpers,  out 

of  print). 
Lee,    J.    M.,    "Histoxy    of    American    Journalism"    (Houghton 
Mifflin). 
^  Payne,  G.  H.,  "History  of  Journalism  in  the  United  States" 
(Appleton). 

Biography 

Ely,   Margaret,   "Some   Great   American   Newspaper  Editors" 
(Wilson). 
/  Stockett,  J.  C,  "Masters  of  American  Journalism"  (Wilson). 
Wieder,  Callie,  "Daily  Newspapers  in  the  United  States."  (Wil- 
son). 


BOOKS   ON  JOURNALISM  413 

Advertising 

Blanchard,  F.  L.,  "Essentials  of  Advertising"   (McGraw-Hill). 
Hall,    S.    R.,  ."Advertisers'    Handbook"     (International    Cor- 
respondence Schools). 

.,  "Writing  an  Advertisement"   (Houghton  Mifflin). 

Starch,  Daniel^  "Advertising"  (Scott  Foresman). 

Dramatic  Criticism 

Andrews,  Charlton,  "The  Technique  of  Play  Writing"  (Home 

CorresiDondence  School). 
Burton,  R.  E.,  "How  to  See  a  Play"  (Macmillan). 
Catfin,   C.   H.,   "The   Appreciation   of   the   Drama"    (Baker   & 

Taylor). 
Clark,  B.  H.,  "European  Theories  of  the  Drama"   (Stewart  &, 

Kidd). 
Hamilton,  Clayton,  "The  Theory  of  the  Theatre"  (Holt). 

Photo-Dramatic   Criticism 

Lindsay,  Vachel,  "The  Art  of  the  Moving  Picture"  (Macmillan). 
MiJNSTERBERG,  HuGO,  "Photoplay,  a  Psychological  Study"   (Ap- 

pleton,  out  of  print). 
Patterson,  Frances,  "Cinema  Craftsmanship"   (Harper). 

Journalistic  Writing  for  High  Schools 

/Dillon,  Charles,  "Journalism  for  High  Schools"   (Noble). 
Flint,  L.  N.,  "Newspaper  Writing  in  High  Schools"  (University 

of  Kansas).  ' 

Harrington,  H.  F.,  "Writing  for  Print"  (Heath). 
Hyde,  G.  M.,  "A  Course  in  Journalistic  Writing"  (Appleton). 

Ideals  and  Ethics  of  Journalism 

Bleyer,   W.    G.,    "The    Profession    of   Journalism"    (Houghton 

Mifflin). 
Holt,  Hamilton,  "Commercialism  and  Journalism"   (Houghton 

Mifflin). 


414  APPENDIX   I 

Lee,  J.  M.,  ^'Opportunities  in  the  Newspaper  Business"  (Harper). 
LiPPMANN^  Walter,  "Public  Opinion"   (Harcourt,  Brace). 
Rogers,  J.  L.,  "The  American  Newspaper"  (Harper). 
Rogers,  Jason,  "Newspaper  Building"   (Harper). 
Sinclair,  Upton,  "The  Brass  Check"  (published  by  author). 
Thorp,  Merle,  "The  Coming  Newspa_per^^  (Holt). 
Williams,  Talcott,  "Journalism  as  a  Profession"  (Scribner). 


APPE^^DIX  II 

BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE 

Some  of  the  best  known  books  of  reference  available  in 
the  average  library  are  the  following.  The  list  does  not  in- 
clude state,  county,  and  city  references,  because  these  vary 
in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

Biographical 

"Who's  Who  in  America" 

"Who's  Who"  (English) 

"Woman's  Who's  Who  in  America" 

"American  Catholic  Who's  Who" 

"Tout  Paris"   (French) 

"Que  Etez-vousf    (French) 

"Wer  Ist's"  (German) 

"Author's  Who's  Who" 

"Congressional  Directory"   (published  for  each  session) 

"American  Men  of  Science" 

"Dictionary  of  National  Biography"   (English) 

"Biographical  Directory  of  Railway  Officials  in  America" 

Annuals  and  Almanacs 

"New  York  World  Almanac" 
"New  York  Tribune  Almanac" 
"Brooklyn  Eagle  Almanac" 
"Chicago  Daily  News  Almanac" 
Whittaker's  "Almanack" 
"New  International  Year  Book" 
"Statesman's  Year  Book" 
"Canadian  Almanac" 

415 


416  APPENDIX  II 

"Minerva"  (Academic) 

"Literary  Year  Book" 

"Municipal  Year  Book"  (English) 

Hazell's  "Annual" 

"Scientific  American  Reference  Book" 

"Mexican  Year  Book" 

"Russian  Year  Book" 

"China  Year  Book" 

"Japan  Year  Book" 

"South  American  Year  Book" 

"Year  Book  of  Scientific  and  Learned  Societies" 

Dressler's  "Kunst  Jahrbuch" 

"Das  Jahr" 

"Almanach  National"  (French) 

"International  Whittaker" 

Statistics 

"Abstract  of  the  United  States  Census" 

"Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States"  (annual) 

"Statistical  Atlas  of  United  States" 

Mulhall's  "Dictionary  of  Statistics" 

Webb's  "Revised  Dictionary  of  Statistics" 

Newspaper  Index 
New  York  Times  Index  (quarterly) 

Periodical  Indexes 
Poole's  "Index" 
"Book  Review  Digest" 
"Readers'  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature" 
"Annual  Magazine  Subject  Index" 

Newspaper  Catalogues  and  Directories 

Ayer's  "American  Newspaper  Annual  and  Directory" 

Sell's  "World  Press" 

State  Lists  in  State  Blue  Books 


INDEX 


Abbreviation,  126,  369,  372,  390, 

395,  401,  402,  404. 
Accounting  teacher,  325. 
Accounts,  316,  326. 
Accuracy,    124,   208,   215,   217, 

229,  369,  374,  408. 
Action,  23,  62,  98. 
Active  voice,  71,  82,  98. 
Addresses,  405. 
Addressing,  333. 
Adjectives,  90,  94,  96,  283. 
Advance  notices,  267,  269,  275, 

284,  301. 
Advertising,   46,   58,    138,   255, 

263,  270,  284,  286,  299,  303, 

316,  317,  323,  326,  327,  352, 

384. 
Afternoon  newspapers,  150,  159. 
All  home  print,  120. 
Alunmi,  318. 

Amateur,  200,  209,  282,  302. 
Ambassadors,  161. 
Analogy,  239,  250,  252,  296. 
Analysis,  248. 
Anecdotes,  224. 
Animals,  53. 
A  Posteriori,  251. 
Apostrophe,  394,  402,  403. 
Appeal,  63. 
A  Priori,  251. 

Argument,  228,  235,  247,  257. 
Art  editor,  316. 
Articles,  154,  157. 
Artists,  67,  120,  196,  316. 
Assignments,  85,  180,  316. 
Associated  Press,  111. 
Associate  editors,  316. 
Athletics,  199. 
Authority,  249,  314,  318. 


Badge,  323. 

Banner  headline,  76,  391. 

Baseball,  200. 

Basketball,  200. 

Beginnings,  32,  44,  61,  88,  133, 

140,  152,  154,  157,  165,  168, 

174,  182,  189,  201,  206,  220, 

283. 
Beg  the  question,  248,  258. 
Biographical    sketch,    25,    219, 

415. 
Block  paragraphs,  43. 
Board  of  control,  318. 
Body  type,  345,  378. 
Boiler  plate,  120,  299. 
Bold-face  type,  347,  372,  379, 

382,  394. 
Bookkeeping,  58,  316,  317,  325. 
Books,  on  journalism,  411;    of 

reference,    415;     reviews    of, 

288,  294. 
Border,  350,  381. 
Boxes,  286,  347,  381. 
Break  over,  75,  348,  362,  364, 

390. 
Bulletin,  138,  384. 
Business,    45,    313,    316,    323; 

manager,  office,  staff,  58,  316, 

317,  325. 
Bye-hnes,  227. 
By  sign  reasoning,  252. 


Cabinet,  United  States,  139. 
Campaigns,  publicity,  303. 
Capitalization,    125,    286,    347, 

369,  372,  379,  382,  394,  400. 
Captions,  350,  363,  392. 
Card  of  rates,  330. 
417 


418 


INDEX 


Caret,  372,  385,  396. 

Cartoon,  75,  196,  209,  245, 
305. 

Case,  printer's,  381. 

Cash  basis,  332. 

Catch-line,  124,  128,  355,  376, 
382. 

Causal,  clause,  156;  reasoning, 
251,  259. 

Censorship,  311. 

Chaperon,  216. 

Charity  advertising,  327. 

Check  on  authority,  314,  317. 

Children,  52. 

Circulation,  58,  138,  196,  263, 
271,  313,  316,  317,  323,  331. 

City,  264,  307;  editor,  37,  84, 
127,  138,  160,  167;  govern- 
ment, 59,  84,  177,  187;  news, 
37,  59,  66,  84,  91;  press  asso- 
ciation, 112. 

Clauses,  71,  155. 

Clearness,  68,  72,  81,  114,  118, 
237. 

Climax,  64,  133,  140,  295. 

Coaches,  202. 

Coherence,  26,  296,  374. 

Colloquial,  96,  210,  389,  405. 

Colon,  394,  402,  407. 

Color,  342;  engraving,  306. 

Coloring  news,  272. 

Column,  conductor,  197,  245; 
inch,  38,  329;  rule,  348,  380; 
width,  43,  337,  345,  377. 

Comics,  strips,  120,  196,  209. 

Comma,  73,  390,  394,  402,  403. 

Comment,  215,  237,  290,  297. 

Commissions,  325,  332. 

Compactness,  70. 

Comparative,  97,  215,  283. 

Comparison,  81,  118,  205,  215, 
239,  250,  268,  290,  295. 

Competition,  320. 

Concerts,  282. 

Concession  clause,  156. 

Conciseness,  69,  94,  97. 

Concrete,  32,   35,   61,   95,   118, 


158,  232,  238,  268,  289,  295, 

374,  390. 
Condensed  type,  378. 
Congress,  128, 151. 
Connotation,  94. 
Consensus,  188. 
Contests,  199. 
Contracts,  330. 
Contrast,  74,  239,  286,  295. 
Control    of    publication,     312, 

318 
Copy,'  122,  164,  175,  350,  355, 

366,  381,  388,  406;   desk,  85, 

127;  holder,  356,  393. 
Copyreader,   37,   85,    127,    138, 

316,  370. 
Copyreading,  127,  368,  369. 
Copyright,  120. 
Coroner,  84,  91. 
Corrections,  123,  368. 
Correspondents,  37,  66,  99,  111, 

167,  209,  217,  226. 
Cost,  336,  342. 
Country  weekly,  120,  279. 
County,  85,  91,  177,  227,  245, 

256. 
Courts,  67,  84,  91,  112,  151. 
Cover,  250. 
Covering  story,  163,   168,   188, 

200. 
Criticism,   266,   268,   275,   282, 

288,  290. 
Crossline,  385. 
Cut-ins,  391. 

Cut-off  rule,  348,  364,  380. 
Cuts,  350,  381. 


Dashes,  380. 
Date  book,  85,  160,  217. 
Dateline,  37,  67,  99,  286,  405. 
Dates,  126,  369, 404, 405;  sched- 

ule  of,  357. 
Debate,  247,  257. 
Decks,  286,  385.  ^ 
Deductive  reasoning,  251,  259. 
Definition,  117,  259. 


INDEX 


419 


Dele,  395. 

Denotation,  94. 

Department  editors,  37,  67,  186, 

217,  226,  245,  274,  315,  316. 
Description,  26,  35,  61,  77,  86, 

93,  102,  114,  283,  389. 
Desk  men,  316. 
Details,  78,  86,  90,  132,  140. 
Diagram,  31,  79,  177;  of  make- 
up, 358;  of  page,  344;  of  staff, 

319. 
Dialogue,  25,  32,  35,  69. 
Diction,  93,  215,  225,  283,  374, 

389,  407. 
Diet  of  words,  98. 
Differentia,  117. 
Digest,  108,  173,  229,  231,  291, 

294. 
Dilemma,  260. 
Directness,  70. 
Display,  75,  217,  256,  279,  337, 

343,  347,  353,  378,  382;  type, 

346,  382. 
Distance,  14. 
Division  of  day,  150,  160. 
^'Dope,"  206,  208. 
Double  measure,  347,  382. 
Dragon's  blood,  306. 
Dramatic  reporting,  186,  266. 
Dropline,  385. 
Dummy,  341,  354,  356,  361. 


Editing,  122,  315,  355. 

Editions,  46. 

Editorials,   226,   228,  235,  237, 

247,  257,  317,  351. 
Editorial,  staff,  37,  316;  writers, 

38,  67,  228,  235,  317. 
Editor-in-chief,  38,  67,  235,  244, 

317. 
Editors,  37,  122,  127,  159,  167, 

226,  316,  370. 
Election,  92,  176,  247,  320,  322. 
Electrotypes,  286,  299,  351. 
Eligibility,  323. 
Emotion,  56,  272. 


Emphasis,  44,  71,  73,  76,  80,  118, 

148,  152,  201,  223,  296,  374. 
Ems  pica,  337,  345,  377. 
End  mark,  124,  368,  406. 
Engagement   announcement  of, 

211   212 
Engravings,  279,  305,  340,  349. 
Entertainment,  28. 
Episodes,  22,  132. 
Essay,  229,  245. 
Essentials,  79. 
Etch,  306. 
Evidence  249. 
Examples,  64,*118,  238,  250,  268, 

289,  295. 
Exchanges,  167, 245, 316;  editor, 

121,  217,  245. 
Executive  board,  318. 
Exposition,  33,  42,  61,  102,  199, 

205,  228,  235,  237,  295. 
Extended  type,  378. 
Extra-condensed  type,  378. 


Face  of  type,  345. 

Facts,  200,  232,  259. 

Faculty,  11,  311,  318. 

Fakes,  272,  408. 

Fallacy,  259. 

Fans,  209,  277. 

Faulty  subordination,  73,  99. 

Feature,  152,  168,  190,  201,  274; 

articles,  49,  66,  152,  187,  300, 

304. 
Federal  government,   112,   128, 

139,  151,  161,  304. 
Fiction,  21,  30,  120. 
Figures,  126,  369,  372,  390,  395, 

404. 
FiUers,  357,  364. 
Film  critic,  274. 
Financial  problems,  323,  335. 
''Fine  ^Titing,"  215,  221. 
Fire  department,  76,  84,  91. 
Flaubert,  94. 
Focused  make-up,  75. 
Folding,  124,  368. 


420 


INDEX 


Folio,  340,  346. 

Follows,  150,  160.^  ^ 

Follow-up,  advertising,  328. 

Font,  378,  381. 

Football,  220. 

Foreign,  advertising,  263;  news, 

112. 
Form,  339;  proof,  365,  392. 
Forum,  readers',  244. 
Free,  copy,  217;  lance,  37. 
Front  page,  75,  279,  360. 
Full  length,  24,  26,  32,  61. 
Furniture,  380. 


Galley,  380;  proof,  356,  380,  392. 
Gathering  material,  5,  30. 
Generalities,  32,  35,  61,  95,  118, 

158,  232,  238,  268,  289,  295, 

374,  390. 
Generalization   from   examples, 

250. 
General  manager,  318. 
Genus,  117. 

Gist,  131,  152,  168,  384. 
Grammar,  8,  34,  68,  90,  97,  124, 

127,  138,  154,  370. 
Grammatical  beginnings,  154. 
Graveyard,  219. 
Grouping,  79. 
Group  interview,  193. 
Guidelines,  124,  128,  355,  376, 

382. 


Half-tones,  279,  305,  341,  349. 
Hand  composition,  344,  379,  397. 
Hanging  indention,  386. 
Headlines*;  37,  75,  85,  10(1  128, 


136,  137,  271,  279,  28^,  315, 
338,  34&,  347,  353,  363,  382, 
383       ^ 

Hearst,  W.  R.,  112. 

Highways,  236. 

Hobbies,  15,  199. 

Hold-over  proof,  357,  361. 

Honor,  320;  society,  322. 


Hospitals,  55,  196,  245. 
Human  interest,  15,  49,  60,  65, 

130,  184,  304. 
Humor,  55,  196,  245. 
Hyphen,  390,  394,  395,  402. 


Ignoring  the  question,  258. 
Illustrations,  46,  75,   118,   120, 

224,  238,  296,  348,  362. 
Imagination,  81. 
Impression,  25,  80,  86,  224,  268, 

291. 
Indention,  286,  372,  382. 
Indirect    quotation,    170,    174, 

182. 
Inductive  reasoning,  250,  259. 
Industries,  218,  287. 
Infinitive,  155. 
Initials,  11,  215,  405. 
Insertions,  124,  373,  395. 
Interest,   13,  25,  34,   195,  203, 

283. 
International  News  Service,  112. 
Interviews,  84,  92, 160,  179,  188, 

220. 
Irrelevant  material,  248. 
Issues  248 
Italic,'372,'379,  382,  394. 


Jump  headHne,  348,  390. 
Justifying,  380. 


Key  address,  advertising,  328. 
Keynote  beginning,  171. 


La3^ing  foundation,  159. 

Layout,  391. 

Lead,  133,  140,  152,   165,   167, 

168,  182,  190,  193,  201,  213, 

220. 
Leader,  236,  380. 
Leads,  345,  363,  380. 
Leased  wire,  112. 


INDEX 


421 


Legislature,  121. 

Length,  paragraph,  43,  148, 158; 

sentence,  68;  story,  76. 
Libel,  128. 
Ligature,  381. 

Line  engraving,  279,  305,  349. 
Linotype,  45,  292,  344,  356,  379, 

397. 
Local,  end,  167;    news,  37,  59, 

66,  84,  91,  150,  167,  186,  209, 

211. 
Logic,  247,  258. 
Long  hand,  123,  367. 
''Look"  interesting,  43. 
Loop,  telegraph,  112. 
Lower  case,  381. 


Make-up,  46,  75,  278,  315,  326, 
336,  338,  380. 

Managing  editor,  37,  316,  357. 

Manner  in  reporting,  181. 

Manuscript,  122,  164,  175,  355, 
366. 

Map,  177,  187,  197,  210,  218, 
227,  236,  245,  256,  264,  293. 

Margins,  124,  367. 

Marks,  copjo-eading,  372;  proof- 
reading, 394. 

Marriage  announcement,  211, 
212. 

Mast-head,  235. 

Matrices,  292,  298. 

Maupassant  de,  94. 

Mechanical  plant,  45. 

Meetings,  188. 

Memory,  11,  181. 

Minor  sports,  200. 

Miscellany,  209,  245. 

Modifiers,  69. 

Money,  404. 

Monotype,  292,  344,  379,  397. 

Moral,  62. 

Morgue,  219. 

Morning  newspapers,  150,  159. 

Mortise,  350,  351. 

Motion  picture,  33,  274. 


Music,  281. 
Mustange  mailer,  333. 


Names,  11,  123,  157,  172,  201, 

206,  211,  368,  400,  403,  406. 
Narration,  21,  30,  48,  60,  77,  89, 

130,  140,  152,  184,  195,  203. 
News,  17,  27,  48,  66,  84,  91,  99, 

111,  130,  140,  152,  169,  179, 

186,  229,  266,  269,  271,  276, 

284,300. 
News,  classification,  186. 
News  gathering,  84,  217,  277, 

282. 
News  staff,  37. 
News-story  form,  131,  140,  145, 

152,  168. 
News  values,  17,  152. 
Nicknames,  374,  401,  403. 
Note  taking,  142,  181,  189,  203. 
Nouns,  72,  90,  94,  154,  203,  374. 


Obituary,  219. 

Observation,  60,  78,  83,  86. 

Offset,  341. 

Opinions,  188,  206,  226,  235,  237. 

Order,  69,  115,  130,  140. 

Outline,  32,  39,  40,  110,  114,  147, 

192,  202,  221,  231,  252,  284, 

295  301. 
Overline,  350,  363,  392. 
Over-playing,  76,  271. 


Page,  337,  344,  353;  proof,  356, 

365,  392. 
Paging,  361,  380. 
Paper,  122,  340,  355,  367,  406; 

standard  size,  338,  339. 
Paragraph,   39,    124,    148,    170, 

173,  184,  193,  221,  374,  380, 

395,  407;  mark,  372. 
Paragrapher,  197. 
Parks,  210. 
Participles,  72,  99,  156,  172. 


422 


INDEX 


Partisanship,  19. 

Passive  voice,  71,  98. 

Pastimes,  28. 

Patent  insides,  120. 

Pathos,  53,  56. 

Per  cent,  125,  372,  405. 

Period,  123,  372,  394,  402. 

Personal,  items,  211;  journal- 
ism, 226. 

Photographs,  219,  305,  349. 

Phrases,  71,  155. 

Pictures,  120,  299,  305. 

Plan  of  publication,  313. 

Play  up,  152. 

Point  of  view,  34,  87,  162. 

Point  system,  377. 

Pohce,  76,  84,  91,  187. 

Pohcy,  18,  138,  271. 

Politics,  10,  19,  197,  230. 

Pony  service,  112. 

Postage,  333,  352. 

Precincts,  197. 

Premise,  251. 

Prepositional  phrase,  155. 

Press  agent,  300. 

Press  associations,  37,  66,  99, 
111,  150,  160,  176,  186,  209, 
226. 

Presses,  46,  298. 

Printer,  46;  contract,  334. 

Prizes,  322,  332. 

Process,  exposition,  104. 

Professional,  200,  209,  282. 

Program,  189,  283. 

Promotion,  320,  322,  332. 

Pronouns,  72. 

Proof,  249,  260;  correction, 
292. 

Proofreading,  315,  356,  357,  371, 
392. 

Propaganda,  300,  303. 

Proportion,  117. 

Proposition,  247,  258. 

Publications,  student,  311. 

Public  buildings,  177. 

Publicity,  269,  275,  284,  300. 

Publisher,  318. 


Puff,  300. 

Punctuation,   8,   73,    110,    123, 

127,  370,  390,  402. 
Pyramid,  141,  386;  page,  353. 


Quads,  380. 

Query,  100,  395. 

Question  beginning,  63. 

Questions,  182,  184,  193;  read- 
ers', 133. 

Quotation  (and  marks),  61,  64, 
126,  165,  170,  173,  182,  189, 
193,  240,  259,  289,  295,  369, 
372,  390,  394,  403,  406. 


Rates,    advertising,    328,    352; 

card,  330;  cutting,  328. 
Readers,  10,  13,  IS,  28,  50,  60, 

63,  68,  78,  80,  89,  133,  232, 

241,  255,  271,  282. 
Ready  prints,  120. 
Records,  205;  copy,  356. 
Reductio  ad  absiirdum,  260. 
Reference  books,  220,  289,  415. 
Refutation,  257. 
Relative  clause,  72. 
Reporters,  37,  84,  150,  160,  183, 

209,  226,  316. 
Residues,  260. 
Responsibility,  311,  336. 
Retouching,  350. 
Reviews,  275,  288. 
Revise  proof,  380. 
Re^\Tite,   150,   160,  370;    men, 

37,  85. 
Roman,  378,  394. 
Rotary  presses,  298. 
Rotogravure,  46,  306. 
Rulers,  168. 
Rules,  380. 

Run  around,  350,  363. 
Run-in  hne,  371,  372,  382. 
Running  story,   164,   173,   183, 

200,  203. 
Runs,  84,  91. 


INDEX 


423 


Salaries,  322,  326,  332. 

Sarcasm,  260. 
Scale  of  rates,  329. 
Schedule,  headline,  348,  387. 
School,  board  or  trustees,  47. 
Scientific  definition,  117. 
Scoop,  186. 

Screen,  half-tone,  306,  349. 
Second-class  postal  rate,  333,352. 
Semicolon,  73,  390,  394,  402. 
SensationaUsm,  16,  28,  138,  271. 
Senses,  89. 
Sentences,  68,  166, 170,  221,  232, 

241,  270,  274,  407. 
Series,  publicity,  301. 
Service  pins,  323. 
Shorthand,  164. 
Shoulder,  type,  379. 
Sidehead,  391. 

Signatures,  210,  226,  286,  346. 
Signed  articles,  226. 
Simphcity,  73. 
Size,    page,    337;     pubHcation, 

336;     standard    paper,    338, 

339;  type,  376. 
Sketch,  biographical,  221. 
Slang,  96,  207,  209,  374,  389, 

407. 
Slug,  292,  380. 

Small  capitals,  347, 379, 382, 394. 
Social  news,  37,  186,  211,  217. 
Society  editor,  211,  226. 
Sohcitors,  317,  327. 
Sohd,  set,  377,  380,  382. 
Sources,  material,  5,  30;   news, 

91,  217,  220,  289. 
Space,  di\asion  of,  328;  in  head- 
fines,  387;  rates,  100, 209,  217. 
Spaces,  380. 

Speaker's  name,  172,  192,  193. 
Special  articles,  37,  120. 
Speech  report,    141,    162,    168, 

169,  179,  183,  188. 
Spelling,  123,  127,  215,  389. 
Spirit,   school   or   college,   312, 

318. 
Spfit  infinitive,  99. 


Sports,  37,  127,  186,  199,  209, 

226. 
Spread  headline,  391. 
Staff,   diagram,   319;    organiza- 
tion, 314;  writers,  316. 
State,  capitals,  299;    study  of, 

91,  92, 101,  112,  121,  128,  177, 

273,  280,  287. 
Standard,  paper  size,  338,  339; 

type,  378. 
Stenographer,  123,  164. 
Stereotype,  46,   120,   251,   298, 

306. 
Stet,  395. 
Stick,  380. 
Stock  company,  335. 
Streamer  headline,  391. 
Strmg,  100. 
Structure,    130;    exposition   of, 

103. 
Student  organizations,  20,  29. 
Style,   93,    100,    127,   214,   228, 

369,  370,  374,  390;    of  type, 

377. 
Style  book,  or  sheet,  125,  369, 

400. 
Subheads,  128,  286,  348,  391. 
Subject,  change  of,  71. 
Subscriptions,  316,  317,  324,  332. 
Substantive  clause,  155. 
Summary,    62,    116,    131,    134, 

140,  163,  169,  171,  182,  184, 

189,  193,  200,  294,  384. 
Summary  lead,    133,    140,   152, 

165,  168,  182,  190,  193,  201, 

213,  220. 
Sunday,     magazine,     26,     120; 

supplement,  120,  306. 
Superlatives,  97,  215,  283,  407. 
Supervising  teacher,  311,  318. 
Surface  of  paper,  340. 
Surprise,  65,  140. 
Suspense,  140. 
SyUogism,  251. 
Symbols,      copjTeading,      372; 

proofreading,  394. 
Symmetry,  75,  279,  338,  363. 


424 


INDEX 


SjTnposium  interview,  193. 
Syndicates,  119,  196,  209,  245, 

'299. 
Synonj-ins,  98,  284. 
Synopsis,  24. 

Tables,  177,  204,  356. 
Tag  day,  303. 
Takes,  122,  381,  371. 
Talent,  4,  7,  199,  281. 
Talking  points,  328. 
Telegraph    editor,    37,    66,    99, 

111,  160,  167. 
Telephone,  112. 
Temporal  clause,  156. 
Testimony,  249. 
Textbooks,  411. 
Theatre,  266,  301. 
Timeliness,  13,  48,  229,  232. 
Tips,  84,  160. 
Titles,  172,  204,  351,  382,  384, 

400,  402,  403,  404,  405. 
Topic  sentence,  44, 116, 149, 165. 
Track  sports,  220. 
Trade  ads,  325. 
Traffic,  187,  236,  272,  293. 
Treasurer,  317,  326. 
Trite  words,  98,  128,  374,  384, 

407. 
Type,  278,  286,  292,  336,  342, 

353,  376. 
TypewTiter,  123,  355,  367, 406. 
Typographical   style,    125,   127, 

369,  370,  374. 
Typography,  278,  286,  292,  336, 

342,  353,  376. 


Underscoring,     123,     356,    368, 
372. 


Uniformity,  125,  343,  369,  390. 
United  Press,  111. 
Units,  headline,  387. 
Unity,  23,  43,  69,  374. 
Unusual,  16,  52. 
Upper  case,  381. 
Up-style,  400. 


Value,  of  publication,  312. 

Variety,  74. 

Verbatim,  interview,   179,  193; 

quotation,  403. 
Verbs,  71,  90,  94,  97,  157,  174, 

203,  374,  384,  389. 
Verses,  236. 
Vignette,  350. 
Visualizing,  77. 
Vividness,  25,  97. 
Voice  of  verbs,  71,  98. 


Want-ads,  59,  197,  264. 
Wards,  cit}^  197. 
Wash-drawdng,  305,  349. 
Wedding    announcement,    211, 

212. 
Weight  of  paper,  341. 
^\^lite  space,  343. 
Witnesses,  250. 
Woman's  page,  37,  186,  255. 
Word  diet,  98. 
Wordiness,  70,  94,  97,  374. 
Words,  93,  215,  225,  283,  374, 

389,  407. 
Wrapping,  333. 
Wrong  font,  394,  397. 


Zinc-etching,  279,  305,  349. 


(2> 


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